Cultural bias in psychological theory and research
EXAMPLES
OF
CULTURAL
BIAS
IN
PSYCHOLOGY Social
influence
-
Cross-cultural
replications of
obedience
and
conformity studies have revealed wide differences in resistance to influence. Interpersonal relationships – culture bias in Western research on this topic, is revealed by its focus on
● brief, new acquaintance, rather than
long term, kin relationships. ● the idea that marriage on the basis
of romantic love is more desirable than on the basis of companionate love.
Helping behavior – Western economic theories on the costs and rewards of helping behavior may not be suitable for other culture.
Abnormality – The increased diagnosis of mental disorder in immigrants may reflect prejudice or misunderstanding by a native diagnoser.
心理学理论和 研究中的文化偏见
心理学中文化偏见举例
社会影响 –对顺从和服从的跨文化研究揭示了在抗拒影响方面存在广泛的差异。
人际关系 - 在这个主题中西方文化研究的偏见，其关注点在于
● 简单，新朋友而不是长期的，亲属
关系。
● 以浪漫爱情为基础的婚姻比以伴
侣为基础的婚姻更令人满意。
助人行为 -西方经济理论中的对于助人行为的花费和奖励不一定适用于其他文化。
变态– 对移民精神障碍诊断的增加可能反映出当地的诊断者对其的偏见或误解。
Psychometric testing – IQ and personality tests have been culturally biased in terms of content, phrasing, application, and assessment. THEORETICAL BIAS
Cultures differ in many important ways from each other，for example in terms of their values ，norms of behaviour and social structure - such as whether they emphasise
individualism
or
collectivism ，masculine or feminine values ，etc. （Triandis,1990）. Since cultural values strongly shape the construction of theories ，a major problem is ethnocentrism ，which involves
● inappropriately
generalising
the
values and research finding of one culture to another without bothering to test other cultures. This limits the validity of theories and neglects important
cross
-
culture
differences 。
● imposing those values upon other
cultures when conducting cross - culture research. This distorts the validity
of
research, over-emphasises differences and can lead to unfavorable comparisons
心理测试 - 智商和性格测试在内容、措辞、应用以及评估方面表现出文化上的偏见。
理论偏差
不同文化中的许多重要方面也会有所不同，例如在他们的价值观，行为规范和社会结构方面 - 例如他们是否强调个人主义或集体主义，男性化或女性化的价值观等（Triandis ，1990年）。因为文化价值观深深地影响着理论的建构，一个主要的问题就是种族中心主义，它涉及
● 不恰当地将在一种文化中获得的
结果概括总结到另一种文化中，而没有对其他文化进行考察测验。这限制了理论的有效性，因为忽略了重要的跨文化差异。
● 当进行跨文化研究时，将这些价值
观强加到别的文化上。这歪曲了研究的有效性，过分强调差异，并可能导致产生不正确的对比。
being made.
Nobles(1976) points out that the ' Eurocentric ' approach （based on concepts such as ' survival of the fittest ',' competition ' and ' independence '）to the study of African people (who believe in 'the survival of the tribe' ,' co-operation ' and ' interdependence ' ) amounts to an act of scientific colonialism. REPORTING BIAS ● Interpretation of results Results
that
show
cultural
differences may be reported in a way that
make
non-American/European
cultures appear deviant from the'norm' or inferior. ● Selection
of
material
to
be
published The
predominantly
white establishment
in
American
and
European psychology has filtered out research on black psychology, leading to the need to publish journals and books
specifically
for
black
psychology . Around two thirds of psychology in the world is North American. ● Use of results
Nobles （1976）指出，用' 欧洲中心论' 的方法（基于概念，如适者生存，' 竞争' 和' 独立' ）研究非洲人民（他们相信’部落’生存，' 合作' 和' 相互依存' ）是一种科学殖民主义行为。
报告偏差 ● 解读结果
结果表明：文化差异可能会以某种报告的方式，使非美国/欧洲文化出现不规范或低等的偏差。
● 出版所选择的材料
以美国和欧洲白人为主的心理学体系筛选掉了黑人心理学家的研究，导致特别有必要为黑人心理学家的研究出版相关的杂志和书籍。世界上大约三分之二的心理学研究在北美。
● 使用结果
Results may be interpreted to fit political ideology
and
thus
‘scientifically
sanction’ racist policies such as the eugenics driven policy of restricting immigration into the USA during the 1920s and 1930s based on the results of (biased) IQ tests. RESEARCHER BIAS
Cultural bias in research is likely to be caused by ·
● lack of researchers
Researcher bias may occur because researchers from other cultures are not appointed to, or promoted
in, academic positions in universities.
’Token’
bl ack
psychologists in a predominantly white department, for example, may find themselves marginalised into areas outside mainstream psychology. ● nature of researchers
Culturally biased or racist researchers are likely to propose hypotheses that a investigate stereotypical differences between
‘races’(arbitrary
and
over-simplified categories based on
结果可能被解释为适应政治意识形态，因此' 科学地批准了' 种族主义政策，如优生学进入美国主导的政策，在20世纪二三十年代通过智商测试被用来限制移民进入美国。
研究者偏差
文化研究的偏差可能是由
● 缺乏研究者
研究者可能会出现偏差，因为来自其他文化的研究人员没有被委任，或是在大学的学术地位没有被提升。 比如在一个白人主导的院系中被“标记为黑人”的心理学家可能会发现自己被边缘化在主流心理学以外的领域。
● 研究者特性
文化上存在偏见或种族主义的研究人员有可能提出假说 a 调查与' 种族分歧的定型' （任意和过分简化的分类基于肤色），可忽略文化的影响，永久定型。
skin colour) which may ignore cultural influences and perpetuate the stereotypes.
b do not investigate important cross-cultural differences
or
similarities.
METHODOLGICAL BLAS
Cultural bias in the methodology studies is found in
● the biased sampling of subjects-the
vast majority of the most famous studies in the American and European psychology only used white subjects. Reviews of research in these countries frequently reveal less than 5% of subjects tested are not white.
● the use of Eurocentric scientific
methods (based on ‘control over nature’, objective ‘separateness’ from
the
subjects
and
the investigation of
individual ’differences’ and ‘uniqueness’),
such
as
the
laboratory experiment, is alien to the African concepts of ‘oneness with
nature’,
‘groupness’
and ‘similarity’(Nobles,1967).
These
methods represent an imposed ‘etic’(the study of a culture from the
b 没有调查重要的跨文化的差异或相似之处。
研究方法中的偏见 研究方法中的文化偏见发现
● 取样偏差 - 在大量的美国和欧洲
的著名心理学研究中只应用白人做被试。回顾研究显示，在这些国家中被试不是白人的数量往往不到5％。
● 在欧洲为中心的科学手段的使用
（以‘对自然的控制’、与被试的客观的分离和对个体的‘ 差异性' 和‘独特性 '的调查为基），如实验室实验，其对非洲观念' 与自然的和谐统一' ，' 集体性' 和' 相似性' 是陌生的（Nobles ，1967年）。这些方法代表了一种强加的' 语音学的' （即对外来文化的研究）有效数据，只能从一个' 音位学的' 方法获得（从文化的内在中得来）。 . 施加' 语音学的' 方法可以导致
outside)when ecologically valid data can only be gained from an ‘emic’
study(from
within
the
culture).Imposed ‘etics’ can lead to very culturally biased tests such as those
on
IQ
described
by
Gould(1982). CONSEQUENCES OF CULTURAL BIAS Nobles(1976)argues
that
western
psychology has been a tool of oppression and dominance. Cultural bias has also made it difficult for psychologists
to
separate
the
behaviour they have observed from the context in which they observed it. V ALIDITY OF CULTURAL BIAS Culturally biased views have been exposed in many area of psychology . REDUCING CULTURAL BIAS Equal opportunity legislation aims to rid psychology of cultural bias and racism, but we must be aware of merely swapping old, overt racism for new,
more
subtle
forms
of
racism(HowittandOwusu-Bempah,19 94).
对文化上的测试产生偏见。 例如Gould 所描述的智商测试（1982年）。
文化偏见带来的后果
Nobles （1976）认为，西方心理学已经成为其压迫和统治的工具。文化偏见也使心理学家很难从他们所观察到的行为所处的环境背景中将他们所观察到的行为分离出来。
文化偏见的有效性
文化偏见的看法已经暴露在心理学的诸多领域。 文化偏见的降低
机会平等法的目的是消除文化偏见和种族主义的心理，但是我们必须警惕决不能用新的、更加精细的种族主义代替旧的、公开的种族主义（Howitt
and Owusu-Bempah，1994年）。
Cultural bias in psychological theory and research
EXAMPLES
OF
CULTURAL
BIAS
IN
PSYCHOLOGY Social
influence
-
Cross-cultural
replications of
obedience
and
conformity studies have revealed wide differences in resistance to influence. Interpersonal relationships – culture bias in Western research on this topic, is revealed by its focus on
● brief, new acquaintance, rather than
long term, kin relationships. ● the idea that marriage on the basis
of romantic love is more desirable than on the basis of companionate love.
Helping behavior – Western economic theories on the costs and rewards of helping behavior may not be suitable for other culture.
Abnormality – The increased diagnosis of mental disorder in immigrants may reflect prejudice or misunderstanding by a native diagnoser.
心理学理论和 研究中的文化偏见
心理学中文化偏见举例
社会影响 –对顺从和服从的跨文化研究揭示了在抗拒影响方面存在广泛的差异。
人际关系 - 在这个主题中西方文化研究的偏见，其关注点在于
● 简单，新朋友而不是长期的，亲属
关系。
● 以浪漫爱情为基础的婚姻比以伴
侣为基础的婚姻更令人满意。
助人行为 -西方经济理论中的对于助人行为的花费和奖励不一定适用于其他文化。
变态– 对移民精神障碍诊断的增加可能反映出当地的诊断者对其的偏见或误解。
Psychometric testing – IQ and personality tests have been culturally biased in terms of content, phrasing, application, and assessment. THEORETICAL BIAS
Cultures differ in many important ways from each other，for example in terms of their values ，norms of behaviour and social structure - such as whether they emphasise
individualism
or
collectivism ，masculine or feminine values ，etc. （Triandis,1990）. Since cultural values strongly shape the construction of theories ，a major problem is ethnocentrism ，which involves
● inappropriately
generalising
the
values and research finding of one culture to another without bothering to test other cultures. This limits the validity of theories and neglects important
cross
-
culture
differences 。
● imposing those values upon other
cultures when conducting cross - culture research. This distorts the validity
of
research, over-emphasises differences and can lead to unfavorable comparisons
心理测试 - 智商和性格测试在内容、措辞、应用以及评估方面表现出文化上的偏见。
理论偏差
不同文化中的许多重要方面也会有所不同，例如在他们的价值观，行为规范和社会结构方面 - 例如他们是否强调个人主义或集体主义，男性化或女性化的价值观等（Triandis ，1990年）。因为文化价值观深深地影响着理论的建构，一个主要的问题就是种族中心主义，它涉及
● 不恰当地将在一种文化中获得的
结果概括总结到另一种文化中，而没有对其他文化进行考察测验。这限制了理论的有效性，因为忽略了重要的跨文化差异。
● 当进行跨文化研究时，将这些价值
观强加到别的文化上。这歪曲了研究的有效性，过分强调差异，并可能导致产生不正确的对比。
being made.
Nobles(1976) points out that the ' Eurocentric ' approach （based on concepts such as ' survival of the fittest ',' competition ' and ' independence '）to the study of African people (who believe in 'the survival of the tribe' ,' co-operation ' and ' interdependence ' ) amounts to an act of scientific colonialism. REPORTING BIAS ● Interpretation of results Results
that
show
cultural
differences may be reported in a way that
make
non-American/European
cultures appear deviant from the'norm' or inferior. ● Selection
of
material
to
be
published The
predominantly
white establishment
in
American
and
European psychology has filtered out research on black psychology, leading to the need to publish journals and books
specifically
for
black
psychology . Around two thirds of psychology in the world is North American. ● Use of results
Nobles （1976）指出，用' 欧洲中心论' 的方法（基于概念，如适者生存，' 竞争' 和' 独立' ）研究非洲人民（他们相信’部落’生存，' 合作' 和' 相互依存' ）是一种科学殖民主义行为。
报告偏差 ● 解读结果
结果表明：文化差异可能会以某种报告的方式，使非美国/欧洲文化出现不规范或低等的偏差。
● 出版所选择的材料
以美国和欧洲白人为主的心理学体系筛选掉了黑人心理学家的研究，导致特别有必要为黑人心理学家的研究出版相关的杂志和书籍。世界上大约三分之二的心理学研究在北美。
● 使用结果
Results may be interpreted to fit political ideology
and
thus
‘scientifically
sanction’ racist policies such as the eugenics driven policy of restricting immigration into the USA during the 1920s and 1930s based on the results of (biased) IQ tests. RESEARCHER BIAS
Cultural bias in research is likely to be caused by ·
● lack of researchers
Researcher bias may occur because researchers from other cultures are not appointed to, or promoted
in, academic positions in universities.
’Token’
bl ack
psychologists in a predominantly white department, for example, may find themselves marginalised into areas outside mainstream psychology. ● nature of researchers
Culturally biased or racist researchers are likely to propose hypotheses that a investigate stereotypical differences between
‘races’(arbitrary
and
over-simplified categories based on
结果可能被解释为适应政治意识形态，因此' 科学地批准了' 种族主义政策，如优生学进入美国主导的政策，在20世纪二三十年代通过智商测试被用来限制移民进入美国。
研究者偏差
文化研究的偏差可能是由
● 缺乏研究者
研究者可能会出现偏差，因为来自其他文化的研究人员没有被委任，或是在大学的学术地位没有被提升。 比如在一个白人主导的院系中被“标记为黑人”的心理学家可能会发现自己被边缘化在主流心理学以外的领域。
● 研究者特性
文化上存在偏见或种族主义的研究人员有可能提出假说 a 调查与' 种族分歧的定型' （任意和过分简化的分类基于肤色），可忽略文化的影响，永久定型。
skin colour) which may ignore cultural influences and perpetuate the stereotypes.
b do not investigate important cross-cultural differences
or
similarities.
METHODOLGICAL BLAS
Cultural bias in the methodology studies is found in
● the biased sampling of subjects-the
vast majority of the most famous studies in the American and European psychology only used white subjects. Reviews of research in these countries frequently reveal less than 5% of subjects tested are not white.
● the use of Eurocentric scientific
methods (based on ‘control over nature’, objective ‘separateness’ from
the
subjects
and
the investigation of
individual ’differences’ and ‘uniqueness’),
such
as
the
laboratory experiment, is alien to the African concepts of ‘oneness with
nature’,
‘groupness’
and ‘similarity’(Nobles,1967).
These
methods represent an imposed ‘etic’(the study of a culture from the
b 没有调查重要的跨文化的差异或相似之处。
研究方法中的偏见 研究方法中的文化偏见发现
● 取样偏差 - 在大量的美国和欧洲
的著名心理学研究中只应用白人做被试。回顾研究显示，在这些国家中被试不是白人的数量往往不到5％。
● 在欧洲为中心的科学手段的使用
（以‘对自然的控制’、与被试的客观的分离和对个体的‘ 差异性' 和‘独特性 '的调查为基），如实验室实验，其对非洲观念' 与自然的和谐统一' ，' 集体性' 和' 相似性' 是陌生的（Nobles ，1967年）。这些方法代表了一种强加的' 语音学的' （即对外来文化的研究）有效数据，只能从一个' 音位学的' 方法获得（从文化的内在中得来）。 . 施加' 语音学的' 方法可以导致
outside)when ecologically valid data can only be gained from an ‘emic’
study(from
within
the
culture).Imposed ‘etics’ can lead to very culturally biased tests such as those
on
IQ
described
by
Gould(1982). CONSEQUENCES OF CULTURAL BIAS Nobles(1976)argues
that
western
psychology has been a tool of oppression and dominance. Cultural bias has also made it difficult for psychologists
to
separate
the
behaviour they have observed from the context in which they observed it. V ALIDITY OF CULTURAL BIAS Culturally biased views have been exposed in many area of psychology . REDUCING CULTURAL BIAS Equal opportunity legislation aims to rid psychology of cultural bias and racism, but we must be aware of merely swapping old, overt racism for new,
more
subtle
forms
of
racism(HowittandOwusu-Bempah,19 94).
对文化上的测试产生偏见。 例如Gould 所描述的智商测试（1982年）。
文化偏见带来的后果
Nobles （1976）认为，西方心理学已经成为其压迫和统治的工具。文化偏见也使心理学家很难从他们所观察到的行为所处的环境背景中将他们所观察到的行为分离出来。
文化偏见的有效性
文化偏见的看法已经暴露在心理学的诸多领域。 文化偏见的降低
机会平等法的目的是消除文化偏见和种族主义的心理，但是我们必须警惕决不能用新的、更加精细的种族主义代替旧的、公开的种族主义（Howitt
and Owusu-Bempah，1994年）。