全面的语言学知识
一、语言和语言学
1、语言的区别性特征：Design of features of language
任意性 arbitrariness 指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系
二重性 duality 指语言由两层结构组成
创造性 creativity 指语言可以被创造
移位性 displacement 指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点
2、语言的功能（不是很重要）
信息功能 informative
人际功能 interpersonal
施为功能 performative
感情功能 emotive function
寒暄功能 phatic communication
娱乐功能 recreational function
元语言功能 metalingual function
3、语言学主要分支
语音学 phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程，考查人类语言中的声音
音位学 phonology 研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列
形态学 morphology 研究词的内部结构和构词规则
句法学 syntax 研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则
语义学 semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。如语素和句子的意义
语用学 pragmatics 在语境中研究意义
4、宏观语言学 macrolingustics
心理语言学 psycholinguistics 社会语言学 sociolinguistics 人类语言学 anthropological linguistics 计算机语言学 computational linguistics
5 语言学中的重要区别
规定式和描写式：规定式：prescriptive说明事情应该是怎么样的
描写式：descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的
共时研究和历时研究：共时：synchronic 研究某个特定时期语言
历时：diachronic 研究语言发展规律
语言和言语：语言：langue指语言系统的整体
言语：parole指具体实际运用的语言
语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky提出)
能力：competence用语言的人的语言知识储备
运用：performance 真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用
二、语音学
1、语音学分支
发音语音学articulatory phonetics研究语言的产生
声学语言学acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性
听觉语音学 auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知
2 IPA（国际音标）是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的
三、音位学
1、最小对立体minimal pairs
2、音位 phoneme
3 音位变体 allophones
4 互补分布 complementary distribution
5 自由变体 free variation
6 区别特征 distinctive features
7 超音段特征 suprasegmental feature
音节 syllable 重音stress 语调tone 声调intonation
四 形态学
1 词的构成
语素morpheme 自由语素free morpheme 粘着语素bound morpheme Root 词根 词缀affix 词干stem
屈折词汇和派生词汇 inflectional affix and derivational affix
2 特有的词汇变化lexical change proper
新创词语invention 混拼词blending 缩写词abbreviation
首字母缩写词 acronym 逆构词汇back-formation例：editor—edit
类推构词analogiacal creation 例：work-worked,,slay-slayed
外来词 borrowing
五 句法学
1 范畴category 数number 性gender 格case 时tense 体aspect
一致关系concord 支配关系govenrment
2 结构主义学派the structure approach
组合关系 syntagmatic relation词和词组合在一起
聚合关系 paradigmatic 具有共同的语法作用的词聚在一起
结构和成分 construction and constituents :句子不仅是线性结构liner structure还是层级结构hierarchical structure (句子或短语被称为结构体，而构成句子或短语即结构体的称为成分)
3 直接成分分析法 immediate constitutional analysis
指把句子分成直接成分－短语，再把这些短语依次切分，得到下一集直接成分，这样层层切分，直到不能再分
4 向心结构和离心结构endocentric and exocentric constructions
向心：指一个结构中有中心词，例an old man ,中心为man
离心：指结构中没有明显的中心词。例：on the shelf
5 生成学派the generative approach
深层结构deep structure指机构关系中的潜在层面underlying level 表层结构surface structure指结构形成的最后结果阶段final stage 6 功能学派the functional approach
主位与述位 theme and rheme
主位：谈话中已知的信息,说话者从它谈起known，
述位：与说话者内容有关的内容what the speaker states about
7 交际力communicative and dynamism简称CD
指句子成分对交际发展所作的贡献的程度
六、语义学
1 利奇的意义七分法Leech and his 7 types of meaning
概念意义conceptual meaning 字面意义
内涵意义connotative meaning 实际交往过程中所指的事物
社会意义
情感意义 affective meaning
反射意义 reflective meaning 由一个词语联想起来的另外一种意义 搭配意义 collocative meaning
主位意义 thematic meaning 通过调整信息的顺序和强调内容所表达的意义 2 指称论 referential theory
指将词的意义和他所指的食物联系起来的意义理论
3 语义三角semantic triangle 奥格登和理查兹提出
Symbol或form 指语言要素（如词和语素），the linguistic elements 能指thought指概念concept
所指reference 指经验世界中的物体the object in the word of experience
涵义sense语言形式的意义
4 主要涵义关系
○同义关系synonymy
地域同义词dialectal synonymy
风格同义词 stylistic synonyms
感情同义词 synonymys that differ in connotation意义相同，但内涵不同，有褒有贬
○反义关系antonymy
等级反义关系gradable antonymy 例cool-warm ;hot-cold
互补反义关系 complementary antonymy,肯定A就否定B，否定B 就肯定A，例dead-alive
反向反义关系converse antonymy .reversal of a relationship betwe
en 2 entities.例 husband-wife; teacher-student
○上下义关系hyponymy 意义包含关系。例：花－水仙、玫瑰、百合
补充：同音同形异义关系homonymy 一词多义 polysemy
七、语用学
1 言语行为理论speech act theory奥斯汀提出John Langshaw Austin 认为人在说话的同时也在进行一定的行为动作
○施为句和叙事句performative and constative
施为句：实施某种行为。
叙事句：描述说话人在说话时所作的动作。
○行事行为理论a theory of the illocutionary act
言内行为：locutionnary act表述字面意思
言外行为：illoutionary act 因为言语本身的习惯力量随之产生的其他一些行为
言后行为：perlocutionnary act 话语在听者身上产生的效果
2 会话含义理论 the theory of conversational implicature
格赖斯提出Herbert Paul Grice
○合作原则:说话人和听话人为达一定的交际目的，都有一种默契，一种都遵循的原则
○ 四个准则four categories of maxims
数量、质量、关系、方式(manner)准则
3 后格赖斯时期的发展
○关联理论：relevance theory:交际应被看做一种表明自身说话意图的行为every act of ostensive(直接表明的) communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance
○数量关系和关系原则the Q-and R-principles
由霍恩Laurence Horn 提出
八 现代语言学理论和流派
1 索绪尔Saussure瑞士语言学家，“现代语言学之父”或者“使语言学科走向现代的大师”
2 布拉格学派Prague School
贡献:共时语言学研究，从“功能”角度看待语言，强调语言的系统性，把语言看做一种功能
突出贡献：语音学说，及其划分语音学和音位学
突出：Trubetzkoy特鲁别茨柯依：提出语音学属于言语，音位学属于语言，提出音位概念
4 伦敦学派 the Lundon School:系统语言学和功能语言学
创始人：弗斯Firth.人物：弗斯受马林诺夫斯基影响。韩礼德为新弗斯派领袖三人都强调语言环境和语言系统的重要性
韩礼德和系统功能语法：由系统语法和功能语法构成。把实际使用的语言现象作为研究对象
5 美国结构主义American Structuralism
共时语言学分支，由博厄斯提出F.Bos.
○撒皮尔-沃尔夫假说Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
语言相对论-语言决定论
○布隆菲尔德Bloomfield《语言论》－20世纪被大西洋两岸同时奉为科学的方法论典范和语言学领域的杰出代表。描述语言学的代表人物
6 转换生成语法transformational–generative grammar
乔姆斯基提出Chomsky.
认为语言是某种天赋，语言习得机制Language Acquisition device
语言学知识
语言学是对语言的系统研究，对于一个学习英语的人来说，应该懂一点语言学的知识，它可以在理论上对学习语言有指导作用，有助于更好的学习语言，下面介绍一点语言学知识。
I. Introduction
1. What is Language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
2. What is Linguistics(语言学)
Linguistics is the scientific study of language.
3.Some Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics
3.1 Speech and Writing
One general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.
3.2 Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)
A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.
3.3 Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) Studies
The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.
3.4 Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)
This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last
century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.
3.5 Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)
Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).
4.The Scope of Linguistics
General linguistics is the study of language as a whole.
Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.
Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.
Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.
Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.
Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.
Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.
Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.
Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.
Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.
Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.
Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.
Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language,
often employing models and concepts of mathematics.
Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.
II. Phonetics(语音学）
1. scope of phonetics
Speech sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least three branches of phonetics:
Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学）we may examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate(协调） in the process.
Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学）we may look into the impression a speaker makes on the hearer as mediated(调节） by the ear, the auditory nerve(神经） and the brain.
Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学） we study the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted（传送） between mouth and ear.
2. The vocal organs
The vocal organs may be viewed as consisting of three parts, the initiator of the air-stream,(气流发生器官） the producer of voice（声音发生器官） and the resonating cavities.（声音共振器官）
3. Consonants(辅音）
Places of articulation(发音部位）: bilabial,(双唇） Labiodentals,（唇齿） dental,（齿） alveolar,（齿龈） retroflex,（卷舌） palate-alveolar,（上齿龈） palatal,（上颚） velar,（软腭） uvular,（小舌） glottal(声门）
Manners of articulation: plosive,（暴破） nasal,（鼻音） trill,（颤音） lateral,（边音） fricative,（摩擦） approximant,（近似音） affricate（破擦）
4. Vowels (元音）
The classification of vowels: the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low), the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back), and the degree of lip rounding(rounded, unrounded)
III. Phonology（音韵学）
1. phonemes(音素）：a distinctive(有区别的） sound in a language.
2. Allophones(音位变体）：The nondistinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme.
3. Minimal pairs(最小对立体）： word forms which differ from each other only by one sound.
4. Free variation (自由变异）：If two sounds occurring in the same environment(环境）, they does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word.
5. Complementary distribution(补充分类）：Not all the speech sounds occur in the same environment. When two sounds never occur in the same environment
6.Suprasegmental phonology(超音段音位）：the study of phonological properties(性质） of units lager than the segment-phoneme. They are syllable(音节）， stress,（重音） word stress, sentence stress. pitch （音调）and intonation（语调）.
IV. Morphology（词法）
1. inflection(构形法）：the grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.(屈折词缀）
2. Word-formation(构词）：the processes(过程） of word variations signaling lexical relationships.（表明词法关系） They are compound(合成）and derivation (派生）.
3. Morpheme(词素）： the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content.
4. Allomorph(同质异象变体）： some morphemes have considerable variation, for instance, alternate shapes or phonetic forms.
5. Types of morphemes: They are roots,(词根） affix（词缀） and stem（词干）.
6. Lexicon(语言词汇）：in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary.
7. Closed-class words(封闭性） and open-class words(开放性）：the former whose membership is fixed or limited and the latter whose membership is in principle(实际上） indefinite or unlimited.
8. Word class(词性）：It displays a wider range of more precisely defined classes.
9. Lexeme(词位）：the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units.
10. Idiom(习语，成语）：Most phrasal lexemes are idioms. It is especially true for a sequence of words(词序） which is semantically（语义上） and often syntactically(句法上） restricted.（限制）
11. Collocation(搭配）： the habitual(习惯的） co-occurrences （同时出现）of individual lexical items.
V. Syntax (句法）
1. Positional relation or word order（词序）：the sequential(顺序） arrangement of words in a language.
2. Construction or constituent (句子结构）： the overall process of internal (内部）organization of a grammatical unit .
3. Syntactic function(句法功能）： the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. The names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicates, modifiers,(修饰语） complements（补语）, etc.
4. Category(范畴）：It refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. The categories of the noun include number, gender, case and countability.
5. Phrase: a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clause.
6. Clause: a group of words with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence.
7. Sentence: It is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought.
VI. Semantics
1. Conceptualism or mentalism (概念主义）：Following F. De Saussure(索学尔）'s "sign" theory, the linguistic sign is said to consist of a signifier （所指）and signified（被指）, i.e., a sound image and a concept, liked by a psychological（心理的） "associative" bond.（相关联系）
2. Mechanism(机械主义）：Some linguists, Bloomfield,(布鲁费尔德） for example,
turned to science to counter（反）-act the precious theories and this leads to what call the mechanistic approach（方法）. The nature of this theory has nothing to do with the scientific study of mental phenomena.（智力现象）
3. Contextualism （语境主义）：It is based on the presumption(假定） that one can derive meaning from or reduce it to observable context.
4. Behaviorism (行为主义）：Behaviourists attempt to define (定义）the meaning of a language form as "the situation(情景） in which the speaker utters（说话） it and the response（反应） it calls forth in the hearer."
5. functionalism (功能主义）：functionalists as represented (代表）by the Prague school（布拉格学派） linguists and neo-Firthian （新弗斯）linguists, approach the problem from an entirely new orientation（方法）. They argue（争辩） that meaning could only be interpreted（解释） from its use or function in social life.
6. Sense relationships: While reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements, words, sentences, etc.,and the non-linguistic world of experience, sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves. They include synonymy(同义词），antonymy(反义词）,hyponymy(下层次）Polysemy(一词多义）and Homonymy (同音异义词）
7. Semantic analysis: It includes 1) componential（成分） analysis which defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.(意义成分）2) predication (表述）analysis in which the meaning of a sentence is not merely the sum of the meanings of the words which compose it. 3) relational components in which the semantic analysis of some words presents a complicated picture, because they show relations between two and perhaps more terms.
VII. Language variation (语言变化）
1. Lexical change(词汇的变化）：changes in lexis.
2. Invention: (新造词）new entities.
3. Compounding合成词）New words are sometimes constructed by combining two old words.
4. Blending: (混合词）：It is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final part of the second root, or by joining the initial parts of the two roots.
5. Abbreviation or clipping缩写）A new word is created by cutting the final part or
cutting the initial part.
6. acronym取首字母的缩写词）It is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified (修饰） headword.
7.
metanalysis再分化）It refers to a process through which a division is made where there were note before.
8.
Back-formation逆构词） It refers to an abnormal(非正常） type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting(去掉） an imagined affix from a longer form already present in the language.
9. Analogical creation:(类比造词）It can account for（说明） the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation(结合） of some English verbs.
10. Borrowing（借用）：English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages.
11. Phonological change(音变）：It is related to language variation in the phonological system of language. It includes loss,(省音） addition,（加音） assimilation,（ 同化）dissimilation.（异化）
12. Grammatical change: Changes in both morphology（词法） and syntax（句法） are listed under this heading.
13. Semantic change:(语义变化）It includes broadening,（语义扩大） narrowing,（语义缩小） meaning shift,（意义转化） class shift（词性转换） and folk etymology.（词源变化）
14. Orthographic change ：(正字法）Changes can also be found at the graphetic level.
全面的语言学知识
一、语言和语言学
1、语言的区别性特征：Design of features of language
任意性 arbitrariness 指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系
二重性 duality 指语言由两层结构组成
创造性 creativity 指语言可以被创造
移位性 displacement 指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点
2、语言的功能（不是很重要）
信息功能 informative
人际功能 interpersonal
施为功能 performative
感情功能 emotive function
寒暄功能 phatic communication
娱乐功能 recreational function
元语言功能 metalingual function
3、语言学主要分支
语音学 phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程，考查人类语言中的声音
音位学 phonology 研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列
形态学 morphology 研究词的内部结构和构词规则
句法学 syntax 研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则
语义学 semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。如语素和句子的意义
语用学 pragmatics 在语境中研究意义
4、宏观语言学 macrolingustics
心理语言学 psycholinguistics 社会语言学 sociolinguistics 人类语言学 anthropological linguistics 计算机语言学 computational linguistics
5 语言学中的重要区别
规定式和描写式：规定式：prescriptive说明事情应该是怎么样的
描写式：descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的
共时研究和历时研究：共时：synchronic 研究某个特定时期语言
历时：diachronic 研究语言发展规律
语言和言语：语言：langue指语言系统的整体
言语：parole指具体实际运用的语言
语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky提出)
能力：competence用语言的人的语言知识储备
运用：performance 真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用
二、语音学
1、语音学分支
发音语音学articulatory phonetics研究语言的产生
声学语言学acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性
听觉语音学 auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知
2 IPA（国际音标）是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的
三、音位学
1、最小对立体minimal pairs
2、音位 phoneme
3 音位变体 allophones
4 互补分布 complementary distribution
5 自由变体 free variation
6 区别特征 distinctive features
7 超音段特征 suprasegmental feature
音节 syllable 重音stress 语调tone 声调intonation
四 形态学
1 词的构成
语素morpheme 自由语素free morpheme 粘着语素bound morpheme Root 词根 词缀affix 词干stem
屈折词汇和派生词汇 inflectional affix and derivational affix
2 特有的词汇变化lexical change proper
新创词语invention 混拼词blending 缩写词abbreviation
首字母缩写词 acronym 逆构词汇back-formation例：editor—edit
类推构词analogiacal creation 例：work-worked,,slay-slayed
外来词 borrowing
五 句法学
1 范畴category 数number 性gender 格case 时tense 体aspect
一致关系concord 支配关系govenrment
2 结构主义学派the structure approach
组合关系 syntagmatic relation词和词组合在一起
聚合关系 paradigmatic 具有共同的语法作用的词聚在一起
结构和成分 construction and constituents :句子不仅是线性结构liner structure还是层级结构hierarchical structure (句子或短语被称为结构体，而构成句子或短语即结构体的称为成分)
3 直接成分分析法 immediate constitutional analysis
指把句子分成直接成分－短语，再把这些短语依次切分，得到下一集直接成分，这样层层切分，直到不能再分
4 向心结构和离心结构endocentric and exocentric constructions
向心：指一个结构中有中心词，例an old man ,中心为man
离心：指结构中没有明显的中心词。例：on the shelf
5 生成学派the generative approach
深层结构deep structure指机构关系中的潜在层面underlying level 表层结构surface structure指结构形成的最后结果阶段final stage 6 功能学派the functional approach
主位与述位 theme and rheme
主位：谈话中已知的信息,说话者从它谈起known，
述位：与说话者内容有关的内容what the speaker states about
7 交际力communicative and dynamism简称CD
指句子成分对交际发展所作的贡献的程度
六、语义学
1 利奇的意义七分法Leech and his 7 types of meaning
概念意义conceptual meaning 字面意义
内涵意义connotative meaning 实际交往过程中所指的事物
社会意义
情感意义 affective meaning
反射意义 reflective meaning 由一个词语联想起来的另外一种意义 搭配意义 collocative meaning
主位意义 thematic meaning 通过调整信息的顺序和强调内容所表达的意义 2 指称论 referential theory
指将词的意义和他所指的食物联系起来的意义理论
3 语义三角semantic triangle 奥格登和理查兹提出
Symbol或form 指语言要素（如词和语素），the linguistic elements 能指thought指概念concept
所指reference 指经验世界中的物体the object in the word of experience
涵义sense语言形式的意义
4 主要涵义关系
○同义关系synonymy
地域同义词dialectal synonymy
风格同义词 stylistic synonyms
感情同义词 synonymys that differ in connotation意义相同，但内涵不同，有褒有贬
○反义关系antonymy
等级反义关系gradable antonymy 例cool-warm ;hot-cold
互补反义关系 complementary antonymy,肯定A就否定B，否定B 就肯定A，例dead-alive
反向反义关系converse antonymy .reversal of a relationship betwe
en 2 entities.例 husband-wife; teacher-student
○上下义关系hyponymy 意义包含关系。例：花－水仙、玫瑰、百合
补充：同音同形异义关系homonymy 一词多义 polysemy
七、语用学
1 言语行为理论speech act theory奥斯汀提出John Langshaw Austin 认为人在说话的同时也在进行一定的行为动作
○施为句和叙事句performative and constative
施为句：实施某种行为。
叙事句：描述说话人在说话时所作的动作。
○行事行为理论a theory of the illocutionary act
言内行为：locutionnary act表述字面意思
言外行为：illoutionary act 因为言语本身的习惯力量随之产生的其他一些行为
言后行为：perlocutionnary act 话语在听者身上产生的效果
2 会话含义理论 the theory of conversational implicature
格赖斯提出Herbert Paul Grice
○合作原则:说话人和听话人为达一定的交际目的，都有一种默契，一种都遵循的原则
○ 四个准则four categories of maxims
数量、质量、关系、方式(manner)准则
3 后格赖斯时期的发展
○关联理论：relevance theory:交际应被看做一种表明自身说话意图的行为every act of ostensive(直接表明的) communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance
○数量关系和关系原则the Q-and R-principles
由霍恩Laurence Horn 提出
八 现代语言学理论和流派
1 索绪尔Saussure瑞士语言学家，“现代语言学之父”或者“使语言学科走向现代的大师”
2 布拉格学派Prague School
贡献:共时语言学研究，从“功能”角度看待语言，强调语言的系统性，把语言看做一种功能
突出贡献：语音学说，及其划分语音学和音位学
突出：Trubetzkoy特鲁别茨柯依：提出语音学属于言语，音位学属于语言，提出音位概念
4 伦敦学派 the Lundon School:系统语言学和功能语言学
创始人：弗斯Firth.人物：弗斯受马林诺夫斯基影响。韩礼德为新弗斯派领袖三人都强调语言环境和语言系统的重要性
韩礼德和系统功能语法：由系统语法和功能语法构成。把实际使用的语言现象作为研究对象
5 美国结构主义American Structuralism
共时语言学分支，由博厄斯提出F.Bos.
○撒皮尔-沃尔夫假说Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
语言相对论-语言决定论
○布隆菲尔德Bloomfield《语言论》－20世纪被大西洋两岸同时奉为科学的方法论典范和语言学领域的杰出代表。描述语言学的代表人物
6 转换生成语法transformational–generative grammar
乔姆斯基提出Chomsky.
认为语言是某种天赋，语言习得机制Language Acquisition device
语言学知识
语言学是对语言的系统研究，对于一个学习英语的人来说，应该懂一点语言学的知识，它可以在理论上对学习语言有指导作用，有助于更好的学习语言，下面介绍一点语言学知识。
I. Introduction
1. What is Language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
2. What is Linguistics(语言学)
Linguistics is the scientific study of language.
3.Some Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics
3.1 Speech and Writing
One general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.
3.2 Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)
A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.
3.3 Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) Studies
The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.
3.4 Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)
This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last
century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.
3.5 Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)
Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).
4.The Scope of Linguistics
General linguistics is the study of language as a whole.
Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.
Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.
Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.
Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.
Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.
Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.
Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.
Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.
Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.
Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.
Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.
Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language,
often employing models and concepts of mathematics.
Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.
II. Phonetics(语音学）
1. scope of phonetics
Speech sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least three branches of phonetics:
Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学）we may examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate(协调） in the process.
Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学）we may look into the impression a speaker makes on the hearer as mediated(调节） by the ear, the auditory nerve(神经） and the brain.
Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学） we study the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted（传送） between mouth and ear.
2. The vocal organs
The vocal organs may be viewed as consisting of three parts, the initiator of the air-stream,(气流发生器官） the producer of voice（声音发生器官） and the resonating cavities.（声音共振器官）
3. Consonants(辅音）
Places of articulation(发音部位）: bilabial,(双唇） Labiodentals,（唇齿） dental,（齿） alveolar,（齿龈） retroflex,（卷舌） palate-alveolar,（上齿龈） palatal,（上颚） velar,（软腭） uvular,（小舌） glottal(声门）
Manners of articulation: plosive,（暴破） nasal,（鼻音） trill,（颤音） lateral,（边音） fricative,（摩擦） approximant,（近似音） affricate（破擦）
4. Vowels (元音）
The classification of vowels: the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low), the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back), and the degree of lip rounding(rounded, unrounded)
III. Phonology（音韵学）
1. phonemes(音素）：a distinctive(有区别的） sound in a language.
2. Allophones(音位变体）：The nondistinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme.
3. Minimal pairs(最小对立体）： word forms which differ from each other only by one sound.
4. Free variation (自由变异）：If two sounds occurring in the same environment(环境）, they does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word.
5. Complementary distribution(补充分类）：Not all the speech sounds occur in the same environment. When two sounds never occur in the same environment
6.Suprasegmental phonology(超音段音位）：the study of phonological properties(性质） of units lager than the segment-phoneme. They are syllable(音节）， stress,（重音） word stress, sentence stress. pitch （音调）and intonation（语调）.
IV. Morphology（词法）
1. inflection(构形法）：the grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.(屈折词缀）
2. Word-formation(构词）：the processes(过程） of word variations signaling lexical relationships.（表明词法关系） They are compound(合成）and derivation (派生）.
3. Morpheme(词素）： the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content.
4. Allomorph(同质异象变体）： some morphemes have considerable variation, for instance, alternate shapes or phonetic forms.
5. Types of morphemes: They are roots,(词根） affix（词缀） and stem（词干）.
6. Lexicon(语言词汇）：in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary.
7. Closed-class words(封闭性） and open-class words(开放性）：the former whose membership is fixed or limited and the latter whose membership is in principle(实际上） indefinite or unlimited.
8. Word class(词性）：It displays a wider range of more precisely defined classes.
9. Lexeme(词位）：the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units.
10. Idiom(习语，成语）：Most phrasal lexemes are idioms. It is especially true for a sequence of words(词序） which is semantically（语义上） and often syntactically(句法上） restricted.（限制）
11. Collocation(搭配）： the habitual(习惯的） co-occurrences （同时出现）of individual lexical items.
V. Syntax (句法）
1. Positional relation or word order（词序）：the sequential(顺序） arrangement of words in a language.
2. Construction or constituent (句子结构）： the overall process of internal (内部）organization of a grammatical unit .
3. Syntactic function(句法功能）： the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. The names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicates, modifiers,(修饰语） complements（补语）, etc.
4. Category(范畴）：It refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. The categories of the noun include number, gender, case and countability.
5. Phrase: a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clause.
6. Clause: a group of words with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence.
7. Sentence: It is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought.
VI. Semantics
1. Conceptualism or mentalism (概念主义）：Following F. De Saussure(索学尔）'s "sign" theory, the linguistic sign is said to consist of a signifier （所指）and signified（被指）, i.e., a sound image and a concept, liked by a psychological（心理的） "associative" bond.（相关联系）
2. Mechanism(机械主义）：Some linguists, Bloomfield,(布鲁费尔德） for example,
turned to science to counter（反）-act the precious theories and this leads to what call the mechanistic approach（方法）. The nature of this theory has nothing to do with the scientific study of mental phenomena.（智力现象）
3. Contextualism （语境主义）：It is based on the presumption(假定） that one can derive meaning from or reduce it to observable context.
4. Behaviorism (行为主义）：Behaviourists attempt to define (定义）the meaning of a language form as "the situation(情景） in which the speaker utters（说话） it and the response（反应） it calls forth in the hearer."
5. functionalism (功能主义）：functionalists as represented (代表）by the Prague school（布拉格学派） linguists and neo-Firthian （新弗斯）linguists, approach the problem from an entirely new orientation（方法）. They argue（争辩） that meaning could only be interpreted（解释） from its use or function in social life.
6. Sense relationships: While reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements, words, sentences, etc.,and the non-linguistic world of experience, sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves. They include synonymy(同义词），antonymy(反义词）,hyponymy(下层次）Polysemy(一词多义）and Homonymy (同音异义词）
7. Semantic analysis: It includes 1) componential（成分） analysis which defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.(意义成分）2) predication (表述）analysis in which the meaning of a sentence is not merely the sum of the meanings of the words which compose it. 3) relational components in which the semantic analysis of some words presents a complicated picture, because they show relations between two and perhaps more terms.
VII. Language variation (语言变化）
1. Lexical change(词汇的变化）：changes in lexis.
2. Invention: (新造词）new entities.
3. Compounding合成词）New words are sometimes constructed by combining two old words.
4. Blending: (混合词）：It is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final part of the second root, or by joining the initial parts of the two roots.
5. Abbreviation or clipping缩写）A new word is created by cutting the final part or
cutting the initial part.
6. acronym取首字母的缩写词）It is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified (修饰） headword.
7.
metanalysis再分化）It refers to a process through which a division is made where there were note before.
8.
Back-formation逆构词） It refers to an abnormal(非正常） type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting(去掉） an imagined affix from a longer form already present in the language.
9. Analogical creation:(类比造词）It can account for（说明） the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation(结合） of some English verbs.
10. Borrowing（借用）：English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages.
11. Phonological change(音变）：It is related to language variation in the phonological system of language. It includes loss,(省音） addition,（加音） assimilation,（ 同化）dissimilation.（异化）
12. Grammatical change: Changes in both morphology（词法） and syntax（句法） are listed under this heading.
13. Semantic change:(语义变化）It includes broadening,（语义扩大） narrowing,（语义缩小） meaning shift,（意义转化） class shift（词性转换） and folk etymology.（词源变化）
14. Orthographic change ：(正字法）Changes can also be found at the graphetic level.