英语语法 a crew of sailors a flock of birds a flock of sheep
a swarm of wasps a sheet of paper a troop/ arm/ batch of soldiers a glass of beer a roll/ peal of thunder a fit/ peal of laughter
a cup of tea a ray of sunshine a bar of chocolate
a cake/ bar of soap a drop of oil a drop/ bucket of water
a cluster/ swarm of ants a stick of chalk a grain/ bucket of sand
a cup of coffee a bottle/ gill/ pint/ quart of wine a display of courage
a fit of temper a peal of applause a ray/ flash of light
a display of power a board of directors a cluster/ bunch of flowers a packet of cigarettes a beach of examiners an army of beggars
a congregation of prayers a staff of teachers a troupe of actors
名词解释：
Dangling participle:
When the subject of participle is not expressed, it is normally to be the subject of the clause. It is usually poor grammar, and sometimes absurd, if this rule is broken: Trying to be quiet, the floor board creaked. But the rule is often broken when the subject is vaguely understood to be “one”, “we”, “you”, people in general.
The infinitive:
It occurs as a verb in the base form which may go with or without to, the former being called the to-infinitive (or simple called infinitive as the unmarked form of the category), and the latter the bare infinitive (as the marked form of the category).
Non-finite verb phrase of clause:
A phrase or clause where the main verb occurs in the non-finite form is termed a non-finite phrase or clause.
Be-subjunctive:
It is formally marked by the use of the base of the verb. That is, the verb invariably occurs in the base form free from the concord constrains with the subject and from the tense agreement with other verbs. The be-subjunctive is further divided into the formulaic subjunctive and the madative subjunctive.
The finite clause and non-finite clause:
The finite clauses are the ones that have subjects and finite verbs as predicates. The non-finite clauses are the ones that leave subjects unsaid and verbs in non-finite forms.
Fronting:
Fronting is a term which refers to the removal of an item from its unmarked position to the marked presubject position.
Non-gradable adjectives:
Non-gradable adjectives are the adjectives acting as attributes (more, latter, indoor, etc), adjectives denoting provenance (British, French, etc.) and adjectives with an absolute meaning (average, excellence, perfect, etc).
Collective noun:
Collective nouns are generally countable nouns, but even in the singular they refer to groups of people, animals or things, such as family, class, team, government, committee, etc.
Central coordinator:
Central coordinators are typically used to put together units at the same time syntactic level. They include and, or and but.
Mass noun:
Those that can not take plural are mass noun, such as butter, cheese, homework music, etc.
Plural invariables
They are 1> names of tools and articles of dress consisting of two equal parts: compasses, jeans, pants, etc.
2> Some collective nouns: cattle, people, police, etc.
3> Geographical names of mountain ranges, water falls, groups of islands: the Rockies, the Balkans, Niagara Falls, etc.
4> Other nouns ending in-s: achieves, arms, etc.
Adjunct
An adjunct is a word (often an adverb) or a group of words which we add to a clause to say something about circumstance of an event or situation, for example: when, where or how it occurs.
Singular invariable:
They are proper nouns like country names and mass nouns like those denoting sciences, subjects, diseases, and games. For example: the United State, the United Nations, Black, Jones, classics, physics, bronchitis, bowls, etc.
Antecedent:
The antecedent is that preceding item which the relative clause modifies, e.g. in the sentence “Is there something you want to tell me?” something is an antecedent.
Morpheme:
A morpheme is the minimal distinctive grammatical unit, and is the lowest unit in grammatical hierarchy. Morphemes are actually abstract elements of analysis. What occurs is an orthographic form in writing termed “morph” which realized the morpheme.
Double relative clause:
Double relative clause is a type of multiple postmodification which is realized by more than one relation clause modifying the same head word. e.g. This is the only book I bought which challenges this common belief.
Attributive adjective
An attributive adjective refers to an adjective that modifies a noun and stands either before or after the noun in a noun phrase, e.g. in the phrase “an old car”, old in an attributive.
Subjunctive mood
It is used to cover all the verb forms that express assumptions contrary to the given fact or not likely to be materialized, and becomes a far less important verbal category than was suggested.
Compound sentences
The compound sentences is a sentence that contains more than clause, usually joined by conjunctions like and, or, but, etc.
Determiner
Determiner refer to words which are used in the premodification of a noun phrase and which typically precede any adjectives that premodify the heat word.
简答：
1. What are the two major types of alternative questions?
They are the type of YES-NO questions, e.g.
A: Would you like tea or coffee?
B: Tea, please.
And the type of WH-questions, e.g.
A: What do you like, tea or coffee?
B: Tea, please.
2. Why do we need to go beyond the sentence and study the text?
Because to express a clear and complete idea or thought, we need more than one sentence. It is quite rare that we only use one sentence to express our idea. When an idea or thought is expressed in more than one sentence, we have a text, which relates sentences together. In other words, sentences in text are coherent so that they help each other in expressing a complete idea. The study of the text is to know how sentences can be joined together coherently so that they can best express ideas.
3. Explain the syntactic distinction between the predicative and non-predictive use of modal
auxiliary with example.
The syntactic distinction between the predictive and non-predictive use of modal auxiliary is clear in the following two sentences:
!> He can’t have been there yesterday.
2>He couldn’t be there yesterday.
The two sentences reveal two quite different uses of the modal auxiliary. The first sentence, where the predictive can’t relates to impossibility and the main verb is marked for past time reference, refers to the speaker’s present denial of possibility of past event. In the second, the modal auxiliary itself, in non-predictive use, is marked for past tense, referring to lack of ability in the past.
4. What’s the function of relative pronoun?
The relative pronoun serves as a “link” between the relative clause and its antecedent. It performs two functions: showing concord with its antecedent and indicating its function within the relative clause.
5. Provide example to illustrate nominal, verbal and causal ellipsis.
1> Nominal ellipsis: Why give me two cups of coffee? I only asked for one.
2> Verbal ellipsis: -- Have you seen him before?
-- Yes, I have (seen him before).
3> Clausal ellipsis: -- Are you OK?
-- Yes (I am OK).
6. If tense is related to time, what is aspect related to?
When tense points to the temporal location of an event or a state of affairs, aspect “reflects the way in which the verb action is regarded or experienced with respect to time”.
7. Apart from querying the truth of a statement, what other potential functions can a NO question perform?
They may be regarded as the speaker’s invitations or suggestions, made in a tentative way as they often are, rather than his negative assumptions. They are like imperatives. For examples:
Won’t you come in?
Won’t you sit down?
They can also be like exclamations:
Isn’t it lovely?
Aren’t you silly?
8. List the type of antecedents?
The antecedent is divided into nominal antecedent. Nominal antecedents fall into different subclasses: they may be common nouns or proper nouns, personal pronouns or demonstrative pronouns. Non-nominal antecedent can be subdivided into three types: clause, verb phrase, predictive adjective.
9. Provide examples to illustrate result-adjuncts and purpose-adjuncts that are introduced by so that.
He worked harder, so that he managed to pass the examinations. (result)
He worked harder so that he could pass the examinations. (purpose)
10. Provide example to illustrate the three degree of comparison.
My bother is as tall as me. (positive degree)
My bother is taller than my father. (comparative degree)
My bother is the tallest in the family. (superlative degree)
11. When the simple present refers to the present time, what are its characteristic uses?
When the simple present refers to the present time, it is suitable for the general timeless statements or the expression of so-called “eternal truths”. At the same time, it also denotes the present existence or state of affairs. Besides, it can express regular recurrence such as a habit, and it is also found in the presentation of an event that happens simultaneously with speech.
12. Under what general circumstances do we prefer genitive to of-phrase and vice versa.
When nouns refer to people, and the relation between the nouns is one of definition, classification, etc., genitives are preferred. When nouns refer to inanimate, lifeless objects, and the head words of noun phrases are classifying adjective, of-phrase are preferred.
13. What is the primary of a WH-question?
The primary function of a WH-question is to ask for information concerning what, when, why, whose, which and how.
14. What are contingency adjuncts? How many types of contingency adjuncts have we recognized?
Contingency adjuncts are an adverbial category that includes adjunts denoting some kind of cause-effect relation. They can be divided into subclasses: reason-adjuncts, result-adjunts, purpose-adjunts, concession-adjuncts and condition-adjunts.
15. Explain the difference between a double relative clause and an embedded relative clause. In double relative clauses, there are two relatives, one enclosing the other, whereas in embedded relative clause there is only one relative clause which itself is embedded in a clause.
16. Provide examples to illustrate some different types of time adjuncts.
1> when- adjuncts: soon, on Friday morning, now, etc.
2> duration-adjuncts: for ten years, very long, since we met, etc.
3> frequency-adjuncts: daily, weekly, often, etc.
17. What kind of relative clause do we normally use to modify a non-nominal antecedent? Give some examples.
We normally use non-relative clause to modify a non-nominal antecedent.
e.g. 1> Her husband is my brother and my wife is her sister, which makes us double in-laws. 2> She dance well, which I don’t.
3> Nick is tall, which I will never be.
18. Where are given information and the new information located in the sentence.
Generally speaking, the given information is offered at the beginning in each sentence while the new information in consistently found in the predicate which normally constitutes the latter half of a sentence.
19. Explain the relationship between tense and time.
Time and tense are not the same thing: time is concept and tense is a grammatical device. Different tenses can express the same period of time, such as the present.
20. What are the two major types of exclamations?
The two major types of exclamations are WHAT-exclamations and HOW-exclamations. The former is followed by a noun phrase, the latter is followed by an adjective or adverb.
21. What is the pseudo-passive?
A pseudo-passive sentences is form but active in meaning. Its ed-participle is adjectival zed so that it becomes a subject complement in the SVC structure. As an adjective, therefore, it can occur in a comparative construction, with a variety of prepositional phrases other than by-phrase, and with other link verbs besides be and get.
22. Explain the conditions in which we need to use non-assertive words in positive statements and assertive words in question.
When a positive answer expected, assertive words can be used in question, such as: Is there some news for me? Is somebody waiting for me? And in affirmative sentences in which there are if clauses, putative should-clauses, and comparative clauses, non-assertive words can be used, such as: If anyone calls me, it must be John. It’s odd that he should say anything like that. He is better than anyone else in this class.
23. List the major types of postponement.
Postponement is generally realized by active-to-passive transformation, by extra position of a clause element, by discontinuity of adjacent elements.
24. Provide example to illustrate reference as realized by pronouns, demonstratives and comparison.
1> Reference by pronouns: Look at the man, I think he’s the person wanted by the police.
2>Reference by demonstratives: They finally arrived at an agreement to stop fire. That agreement saved by the country from war.
3> Reference by comparison: John is both stupid and lazy. His brother is no better.
25. Provide examples to illustrate nominal, verbal and clausal substitution.
1> Nominal substitution: I know I need a good car, but I can’t afford one.
2> Verbal substitution: -- Have you finished all the essays?
--I have done one.
3> Clausal substitution: --Is he the right person for the job?
-- I suppose so.
26. What’s the major function of preposition? And list the two types of preposition.
The major function of preposition is connect words of nouns verbs and adjectives to other part of the sentence. We divide preposition into two types: simple preposition and complex preposition.
27. Provide examples of partial inversion and complete inversion.
Partial inversion: Under no circumstances can you underestimate you rival.
Complete inversion: The door burst open and in rushed a large angry crowed.
28. What is a unified text?
The unified text is one that is not only structurally well-integrated but also semantically coherent.
29. As a future time expression, what special meaning does the simple presents impart?
When there is something we conceive as unalterable and we can be as confident of as we are of the given facts, we use the simple present to refer to the future time. Something that happens on calendar
or timetable falls into this category.
30. What are the verbs which transferred negation often occurs with? What is their shared semantic feature?
The verbs which transferred negation often occurs with are: think, believe, suppose, imagine and expect. They are the verbs that express “opinion”.
31. What are the three principle of concord?
The three complementary principles of concord are the grammatical principle, the notional principle and the principle of proximity.
32. What order do the different types of place adjuncts follow when they co-occur?
When place adjuncts of different types co-occur, they usually follow this order: distance + direction + source + goal + position.
33. What are the semantic and functional differences between a prefix and a suffix?
The function of a prefix tends to be semantically oriented. That is, it adds new meaning to a base. Most of prefixes do not change word classes while only a few (like a-, be-, em /en-etc.) change word classes. Suffixes are basically class-changing morphemes. They change nouns to verbs, adjectives, or change adjectives to nouns, verbs, or adjectives to adverbs.
34. What are the four major types of sentences and what discourse functions are they normally associated with?
The four major types of sentences are declaratives, interrogatives imperatives and exclamatives. These four types are respectively associated with giving information, requiring actions and expressing the speaker’s impression of something.
35. Why is the past tense often used for politeness?
Because the past tense can make a question or a statement or a suggestion less direct. It is more polite to use the past tense on the part of the speaker..
36. Do we always use the singular verb with a clausal subject?
No. Generally, a one-clause subject takes the singular verb and a two-clause subjects, the plural verb. The notional principle of concord applies if the context suggests the plurality of a one-clause subject.
37. Provide examples to illustrate the three major types of non-finite subordinate clause. 1> Infinitive clauses: He didn’t know what to do with his enemy.
2> -ing participle clauses: she kept nodding her head from time as though understanding every word of his lecture.
3> -ed participle clauses: work hard until told to stop.
38. What are the typical expressions of the future time?
The future time can be expressed by will/ shall do something, he going to do something, present progressive, and simple present.
39. What are some of the constraints that the double genitive is subject to?
The second noun is the double genitive almost always refers to persons, never to objects. And the first noun usually has indefinite reference (typically premodified by the indefinite article) and the second noun is always definite.
40. Distinguish root, stem and base as morphological terms.
“Root”, “stem” and “base” may refer to the same thing in same cases, but they are different from each other in that: A root is that part of a word that remains when all affixes haven been removed; A root is not farther analyzable in morphological forms; A stem has to do with inflectional features and is the
part that remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed; A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added.
41. Explain the principle of proximity of concord with examples.
The principle of proximity denotes “agreement of the verb with a closely preceding noun phrase in preference to agreement with the head of the noun phrase that functions as subject”. For example: Neither my wife nor I am coming to the ceremony.
Not only the layers but also the coach was responsible for the defeat.
42. List the types of subordinate clauses.
Subordinate clauses are usually divided into three types by their function: relative clauses, adverbial clausesand nominal clauses. In form, subordinate clauses may also be divided into finite clauses non-finite clause and verbless clauses.
43. Explain the differences between a tag question with a final rising tone and one with a final falling tone.
With a rising tone, the question express the speaker’s neutral expectation of the hearer’s response and to verify the truth of the proposition in the statement.
With a falling tone, the speaker asks for the hearer’s confirmation of the statement. It can be regarded as similar to an exclamation.
44. What are generic reference and specific reference?
Generic reference and specific reference are the two uses of articles. Generic reference indicates the whole species or king, while specific reference indicates one specific people or thing.
45. Given the present time as its most important meaning, what is special about the simple present when it is used to refer to the past and the future?
When the simple present refers to the past, it brings the past events or states to the present time as if they were actually happening at the moment of speech, it is used in narrative writing to achieve vividness. It can be found in 1> newspaper headline, 2>photographic options, 3> state direction and 4> utterances with verbs of communication (say, hear, tell, etc.) Simple present referring to the future is common in dependent clauses.
46. What concord principle do we normally apply to the existential sentence?
Concord in the existential sentence normally complies with the notional principle. The verb agrees with the notional subject.
47. What are restrictive adjectives and non-restrictive adjectives?
A restrictive adjective helps identify the reference of the noun by describing its distinctive qualities. Whereas a non-restrictive adjective merely provide some additional information which is usually not essential for the identification of the referent.
48. Point out instances of the sativa and dynamic uses of prepositions with reference to spatial relations.
The car was parked in front of the building. (In front of indicates a static location)
He jumped into the river. (Into indicates the direction of a movement)
49. What are the differences between determiners and adjectives?
Determiners and adjectives are different in five ways:
1> Determiners usually precede adjectives in premodification;
2> The choice of determiners is often determined by the head word but not that of adjectives;
3> Adjectives describe the head word by showing its characteristics determine the head word by identifying or quantifying.
4> Adjectives can postmodify the head word, but not determiners (except enough);
5> Adjectives have comparative forms, inflectional or periphrastic, but not determiners (except few, little, many and much).
50. What are some of the typical semantic components of the present progressive?
Some of the typical semantic components of the present progressive are: duration, simultaneity, temporariness, incompleteness, vividness, emphasis, etc.
下面是语法术语：
语法 grammar
句法 syntax
词法 morphology
结构 structure
层次 rank
句子 sentence
从句 clause
词组 phrase
词类 part of speech
单词 word
实词 notional word
虚词 structrural word
名词 noun
专有名词 proper noun
普通名词 common noun
可数名词 countable noun
不可数名词 uncountable noun
抽象名词 abstract noun
具体名词 concret moun
物质名词 material noun
集体名词 collective noun
个体名词 individual noun
介词 preposition
连词 conjunction
动词 verb
主动词 main verb
及物动词 transitive verb
不及物动词 intransitive verb
系动词 link verb
助动词 auxiliary verb
情态动词 modal verb
规则动词 regular verb
不规则动词 irregular verb
短语动词 phrasal verb
限定动词 finite verb
非限定动词 infinite verb
使役动词 causative verb
感官动词 verb of senses
动态动词 event verb
静态动词 state verb
感叹词 exclamation
形容词 adjective
副词 adverb
方式副词 adverb of manner
程度副词 adverb of degree
时间副词 adverb of time
地点副词 adverb of place
修饰性副词 adjunct
连接性副词 conjunct
疑问副词 interogative adverb
关系副词 relative adverb
代词 pronoun
人称代词 personal pronoun
物主代词 possesive pronoun
反身代词 reflexive pronoun
相互代词 reciprocal pronoun
指示代词 demonstrative pronoun
疑问代词 interrogative pronoun
关系代词 relative pronoun
不定代词 indefinite pronoun
物主代词 possecive pronoun
名词性物主代词 nominal possesive prnoun
形容词性物主代词 adjectival possesive pronoun
冠词 article
定冠词 definite article
不定冠词 indefinite article
数词 numeral
基数词 cardinal numeral
序数词 ordinal numeral
分数词 fractional numeral
形式 form
单数形式 singular form
复数形式 plural form
限定动词 finite verb form
非限定动词 non-finite verb form
原形 base form
从句 clause
从属句 subordinate clause
并列句 coordinate clause
名词从句 nominal clause
定语从句 attributive clause
状语从句 adverbial clause
宾语从句 object clause
主语从句 subject clause
同位语从句 appositive clause
时间状语从句 adverbial clause of time
地点状语从句 adverbial clause of place
方式状语从句 adverbial clause of manner
让步状语从句 adverbial clause of concession
原因状语从句 adverbial clause of cause
结果状语从句 adverbial clause of result
目的状语从句 adverbial clause of purpose
条件状语从句 adverbial clause of condition
真实条件状语从句 adverbial clause of real condition 非真实条件状语从句 adverbial clause of unreal condition 含蓄条件句 adverbial clause of implied condition 错综条件句 adverbial clause of mixed condition
句子 sentence
简单句 simple sentence
并列句 compound sentence
复合句 complex sentence
并列复合句 compound complex sentence
陈述句 declarative sentence
疑问句 interrogative sentence
一般疑问句 general question
特殊疑问句 special question
选择疑问句 alternative question
附加疑问句 tag question
反义疑问句 disjunctive question
修辞疑问句 rhetorical question
感叹疑问句 exclamatory question
存在句 existential sentence
肯定句 positive sentwence
否定句 negative sentence
祈使句 imperative sentence
省略句 elliptical sentence
感叹句 exclamatory sentence
基本句型 basic sentence patern
句子成分 members of sentences
主语 subject
谓语 predicate
宾语 object
双宾语 dual object
直接宾语 direct object
间接宾语 indirect object
复合宾语 complex object
同源宾语 cognate object
补语 complement
主补 subject complement
宾补 object complement
表语 predicative
定语 attribute
同位语 appositive
状语 adverbial
句法关系 syntatic relationship
并列 coordinate
从属 subordination
修饰 modification
前置修饰 pre-modification
后置修饰 post-modification
限制 restriction
双重限制 double-restriction
非限制 non-restriction
数 number
单数形式 singular form
复数形式 plural form
规则形式 regular form
不规则形式 irregular form
格 case
普通格 common case
所有格 possessive case
主格 nominative case c
宾格 objective case
性 gender
阳性 masculine
阴性 feminine
通性 common
中性 neuter
人称 person
第一人称 first person
第二人称 second person
第三人称 third person
时态 tense
过去将来时 past future tense
过去将来进行时 past future continuous tense
过去将来完成时 past future perfect tense
一般现在时 present simple tense
一般过去时 past simple tense
一般将来时 future simple tense
现在完成时 past perfect tense
过去完成时 present perfect tense
将来完成时 future perfect tense
现在进行时 present continuous tense
过去进行时 past continuous tense
将来进行时 future continuous tense
过去将来进行时 past future continuous tense
现在完成进行时 present perfect continuous tense
过去完成进行时 past perfect continuous tense
语态 voice
主动语态 active voice
被动语态 passive voice
语气 mood
陈述语气 indicative mood
祈使语气 imperative mood
虚拟语气 subjunctive mood
否定 negation
否定范围 scope of negation
全部否定 full negation
局部否定 partial negation
转移否定 shift of negation
语序 order
自然语序 natural order
倒装语序 inversion
全部倒装 full inversion
部分倒装 partial inversion
直接引语 direct speech
间接引语 indirect speech
自由直接引语 free direct speech
自由间接引语 free indirect speech
一致 agreement
主谓一致 subject-predicate agreement
语法一致 grammatical agreement
概念一致 notional agreement
就近原则 principle of proximity
强调 emphasis
重复 repetition
语音 pronunciation
语调 tone
升调 rising tone
降调 falling tone
降升调 falling-rising tone
文体 style
正式文体 formal
非正式文体 informal
口语 spoken/oral English
套语 formulistic expression
英国英语 British English
美国英语 American English
用法 usage
感情色彩 emotional coloring
褒义 commendatory
贬义 derogatory
幽默 humorous
讽刺 sarcastic
挖苦 ironic
肯定词 非肯定词
some any 一些
something anything 一些事
somewhere anywhere 某处；任何地方
somehow in any way 以某种方式
somewhat any （the ） 在某种程度上
still any longer 仍然；（不）再
already yet 已经；尚（未）
sometimes ever 有时；曾经
too either 也
助动词(auxiliary)主要有两类：基本助动词(primary auxiliary) 和情态助动词(modal auxiliary) 。基本助动词有三个：do, have和be ；情态助动词有十三个：may, might; can, could; will, would; shall, should; must, need, dare, used to, ought to.
英语语法 a crew of sailors a flock of birds a flock of sheep
a swarm of wasps a sheet of paper a troop/ arm/ batch of soldiers a glass of beer a roll/ peal of thunder a fit/ peal of laughter
a cup of tea a ray of sunshine a bar of chocolate
a cake/ bar of soap a drop of oil a drop/ bucket of water
a cluster/ swarm of ants a stick of chalk a grain/ bucket of sand
a cup of coffee a bottle/ gill/ pint/ quart of wine a display of courage
a fit of temper a peal of applause a ray/ flash of light
a display of power a board of directors a cluster/ bunch of flowers a packet of cigarettes a beach of examiners an army of beggars
a congregation of prayers a staff of teachers a troupe of actors
名词解释：
Dangling participle:
When the subject of participle is not expressed, it is normally to be the subject of the clause. It is usually poor grammar, and sometimes absurd, if this rule is broken: Trying to be quiet, the floor board creaked. But the rule is often broken when the subject is vaguely understood to be “one”, “we”, “you”, people in general.
The infinitive:
It occurs as a verb in the base form which may go with or without to, the former being called the to-infinitive (or simple called infinitive as the unmarked form of the category), and the latter the bare infinitive (as the marked form of the category).
Non-finite verb phrase of clause:
A phrase or clause where the main verb occurs in the non-finite form is termed a non-finite phrase or clause.
Be-subjunctive:
It is formally marked by the use of the base of the verb. That is, the verb invariably occurs in the base form free from the concord constrains with the subject and from the tense agreement with other verbs. The be-subjunctive is further divided into the formulaic subjunctive and the madative subjunctive.
The finite clause and non-finite clause:
The finite clauses are the ones that have subjects and finite verbs as predicates. The non-finite clauses are the ones that leave subjects unsaid and verbs in non-finite forms.
Fronting:
Fronting is a term which refers to the removal of an item from its unmarked position to the marked presubject position.
Non-gradable adjectives:
Non-gradable adjectives are the adjectives acting as attributes (more, latter, indoor, etc), adjectives denoting provenance (British, French, etc.) and adjectives with an absolute meaning (average, excellence, perfect, etc).
Collective noun:
Collective nouns are generally countable nouns, but even in the singular they refer to groups of people, animals or things, such as family, class, team, government, committee, etc.
Central coordinator:
Central coordinators are typically used to put together units at the same time syntactic level. They include and, or and but.
Mass noun:
Those that can not take plural are mass noun, such as butter, cheese, homework music, etc.
Plural invariables
They are 1> names of tools and articles of dress consisting of two equal parts: compasses, jeans, pants, etc.
2> Some collective nouns: cattle, people, police, etc.
3> Geographical names of mountain ranges, water falls, groups of islands: the Rockies, the Balkans, Niagara Falls, etc.
4> Other nouns ending in-s: achieves, arms, etc.
Adjunct
An adjunct is a word (often an adverb) or a group of words which we add to a clause to say something about circumstance of an event or situation, for example: when, where or how it occurs.
Singular invariable:
They are proper nouns like country names and mass nouns like those denoting sciences, subjects, diseases, and games. For example: the United State, the United Nations, Black, Jones, classics, physics, bronchitis, bowls, etc.
Antecedent:
The antecedent is that preceding item which the relative clause modifies, e.g. in the sentence “Is there something you want to tell me?” something is an antecedent.
Morpheme:
A morpheme is the minimal distinctive grammatical unit, and is the lowest unit in grammatical hierarchy. Morphemes are actually abstract elements of analysis. What occurs is an orthographic form in writing termed “morph” which realized the morpheme.
Double relative clause:
Double relative clause is a type of multiple postmodification which is realized by more than one relation clause modifying the same head word. e.g. This is the only book I bought which challenges this common belief.
Attributive adjective
An attributive adjective refers to an adjective that modifies a noun and stands either before or after the noun in a noun phrase, e.g. in the phrase “an old car”, old in an attributive.
Subjunctive mood
It is used to cover all the verb forms that express assumptions contrary to the given fact or not likely to be materialized, and becomes a far less important verbal category than was suggested.
Compound sentences
The compound sentences is a sentence that contains more than clause, usually joined by conjunctions like and, or, but, etc.
Determiner
Determiner refer to words which are used in the premodification of a noun phrase and which typically precede any adjectives that premodify the heat word.
简答：
1. What are the two major types of alternative questions?
They are the type of YES-NO questions, e.g.
A: Would you like tea or coffee?
B: Tea, please.
And the type of WH-questions, e.g.
A: What do you like, tea or coffee?
B: Tea, please.
2. Why do we need to go beyond the sentence and study the text?
Because to express a clear and complete idea or thought, we need more than one sentence. It is quite rare that we only use one sentence to express our idea. When an idea or thought is expressed in more than one sentence, we have a text, which relates sentences together. In other words, sentences in text are coherent so that they help each other in expressing a complete idea. The study of the text is to know how sentences can be joined together coherently so that they can best express ideas.
3. Explain the syntactic distinction between the predicative and non-predictive use of modal
auxiliary with example.
The syntactic distinction between the predictive and non-predictive use of modal auxiliary is clear in the following two sentences:
!> He can’t have been there yesterday.
2>He couldn’t be there yesterday.
The two sentences reveal two quite different uses of the modal auxiliary. The first sentence, where the predictive can’t relates to impossibility and the main verb is marked for past time reference, refers to the speaker’s present denial of possibility of past event. In the second, the modal auxiliary itself, in non-predictive use, is marked for past tense, referring to lack of ability in the past.
4. What’s the function of relative pronoun?
The relative pronoun serves as a “link” between the relative clause and its antecedent. It performs two functions: showing concord with its antecedent and indicating its function within the relative clause.
5. Provide example to illustrate nominal, verbal and causal ellipsis.
1> Nominal ellipsis: Why give me two cups of coffee? I only asked for one.
2> Verbal ellipsis: -- Have you seen him before?
-- Yes, I have (seen him before).
3> Clausal ellipsis: -- Are you OK?
-- Yes (I am OK).
6. If tense is related to time, what is aspect related to?
When tense points to the temporal location of an event or a state of affairs, aspect “reflects the way in which the verb action is regarded or experienced with respect to time”.
7. Apart from querying the truth of a statement, what other potential functions can a NO question perform?
They may be regarded as the speaker’s invitations or suggestions, made in a tentative way as they often are, rather than his negative assumptions. They are like imperatives. For examples:
Won’t you come in?
Won’t you sit down?
They can also be like exclamations:
Isn’t it lovely?
Aren’t you silly?
8. List the type of antecedents?
The antecedent is divided into nominal antecedent. Nominal antecedents fall into different subclasses: they may be common nouns or proper nouns, personal pronouns or demonstrative pronouns. Non-nominal antecedent can be subdivided into three types: clause, verb phrase, predictive adjective.
9. Provide examples to illustrate result-adjuncts and purpose-adjuncts that are introduced by so that.
He worked harder, so that he managed to pass the examinations. (result)
He worked harder so that he could pass the examinations. (purpose)
10. Provide example to illustrate the three degree of comparison.
My bother is as tall as me. (positive degree)
My bother is taller than my father. (comparative degree)
My bother is the tallest in the family. (superlative degree)
11. When the simple present refers to the present time, what are its characteristic uses?
When the simple present refers to the present time, it is suitable for the general timeless statements or the expression of so-called “eternal truths”. At the same time, it also denotes the present existence or state of affairs. Besides, it can express regular recurrence such as a habit, and it is also found in the presentation of an event that happens simultaneously with speech.
12. Under what general circumstances do we prefer genitive to of-phrase and vice versa.
When nouns refer to people, and the relation between the nouns is one of definition, classification, etc., genitives are preferred. When nouns refer to inanimate, lifeless objects, and the head words of noun phrases are classifying adjective, of-phrase are preferred.
13. What is the primary of a WH-question?
The primary function of a WH-question is to ask for information concerning what, when, why, whose, which and how.
14. What are contingency adjuncts? How many types of contingency adjuncts have we recognized?
Contingency adjuncts are an adverbial category that includes adjunts denoting some kind of cause-effect relation. They can be divided into subclasses: reason-adjuncts, result-adjunts, purpose-adjunts, concession-adjuncts and condition-adjunts.
15. Explain the difference between a double relative clause and an embedded relative clause. In double relative clauses, there are two relatives, one enclosing the other, whereas in embedded relative clause there is only one relative clause which itself is embedded in a clause.
16. Provide examples to illustrate some different types of time adjuncts.
1> when- adjuncts: soon, on Friday morning, now, etc.
2> duration-adjuncts: for ten years, very long, since we met, etc.
3> frequency-adjuncts: daily, weekly, often, etc.
17. What kind of relative clause do we normally use to modify a non-nominal antecedent? Give some examples.
We normally use non-relative clause to modify a non-nominal antecedent.
e.g. 1> Her husband is my brother and my wife is her sister, which makes us double in-laws. 2> She dance well, which I don’t.
3> Nick is tall, which I will never be.
18. Where are given information and the new information located in the sentence.
Generally speaking, the given information is offered at the beginning in each sentence while the new information in consistently found in the predicate which normally constitutes the latter half of a sentence.
19. Explain the relationship between tense and time.
Time and tense are not the same thing: time is concept and tense is a grammatical device. Different tenses can express the same period of time, such as the present.
20. What are the two major types of exclamations?
The two major types of exclamations are WHAT-exclamations and HOW-exclamations. The former is followed by a noun phrase, the latter is followed by an adjective or adverb.
21. What is the pseudo-passive?
A pseudo-passive sentences is form but active in meaning. Its ed-participle is adjectival zed so that it becomes a subject complement in the SVC structure. As an adjective, therefore, it can occur in a comparative construction, with a variety of prepositional phrases other than by-phrase, and with other link verbs besides be and get.
22. Explain the conditions in which we need to use non-assertive words in positive statements and assertive words in question.
When a positive answer expected, assertive words can be used in question, such as: Is there some news for me? Is somebody waiting for me? And in affirmative sentences in which there are if clauses, putative should-clauses, and comparative clauses, non-assertive words can be used, such as: If anyone calls me, it must be John. It’s odd that he should say anything like that. He is better than anyone else in this class.
23. List the major types of postponement.
Postponement is generally realized by active-to-passive transformation, by extra position of a clause element, by discontinuity of adjacent elements.
24. Provide example to illustrate reference as realized by pronouns, demonstratives and comparison.
1> Reference by pronouns: Look at the man, I think he’s the person wanted by the police.
2>Reference by demonstratives: They finally arrived at an agreement to stop fire. That agreement saved by the country from war.
3> Reference by comparison: John is both stupid and lazy. His brother is no better.
25. Provide examples to illustrate nominal, verbal and clausal substitution.
1> Nominal substitution: I know I need a good car, but I can’t afford one.
2> Verbal substitution: -- Have you finished all the essays?
--I have done one.
3> Clausal substitution: --Is he the right person for the job?
-- I suppose so.
26. What’s the major function of preposition? And list the two types of preposition.
The major function of preposition is connect words of nouns verbs and adjectives to other part of the sentence. We divide preposition into two types: simple preposition and complex preposition.
27. Provide examples of partial inversion and complete inversion.
Partial inversion: Under no circumstances can you underestimate you rival.
Complete inversion: The door burst open and in rushed a large angry crowed.
28. What is a unified text?
The unified text is one that is not only structurally well-integrated but also semantically coherent.
29. As a future time expression, what special meaning does the simple presents impart?
When there is something we conceive as unalterable and we can be as confident of as we are of the given facts, we use the simple present to refer to the future time. Something that happens on calendar
or timetable falls into this category.
30. What are the verbs which transferred negation often occurs with? What is their shared semantic feature?
The verbs which transferred negation often occurs with are: think, believe, suppose, imagine and expect. They are the verbs that express “opinion”.
31. What are the three principle of concord?
The three complementary principles of concord are the grammatical principle, the notional principle and the principle of proximity.
32. What order do the different types of place adjuncts follow when they co-occur?
When place adjuncts of different types co-occur, they usually follow this order: distance + direction + source + goal + position.
33. What are the semantic and functional differences between a prefix and a suffix?
The function of a prefix tends to be semantically oriented. That is, it adds new meaning to a base. Most of prefixes do not change word classes while only a few (like a-, be-, em /en-etc.) change word classes. Suffixes are basically class-changing morphemes. They change nouns to verbs, adjectives, or change adjectives to nouns, verbs, or adjectives to adverbs.
34. What are the four major types of sentences and what discourse functions are they normally associated with?
The four major types of sentences are declaratives, interrogatives imperatives and exclamatives. These four types are respectively associated with giving information, requiring actions and expressing the speaker’s impression of something.
35. Why is the past tense often used for politeness?
Because the past tense can make a question or a statement or a suggestion less direct. It is more polite to use the past tense on the part of the speaker..
36. Do we always use the singular verb with a clausal subject?
No. Generally, a one-clause subject takes the singular verb and a two-clause subjects, the plural verb. The notional principle of concord applies if the context suggests the plurality of a one-clause subject.
37. Provide examples to illustrate the three major types of non-finite subordinate clause. 1> Infinitive clauses: He didn’t know what to do with his enemy.
2> -ing participle clauses: she kept nodding her head from time as though understanding every word of his lecture.
3> -ed participle clauses: work hard until told to stop.
38. What are the typical expressions of the future time?
The future time can be expressed by will/ shall do something, he going to do something, present progressive, and simple present.
39. What are some of the constraints that the double genitive is subject to?
The second noun is the double genitive almost always refers to persons, never to objects. And the first noun usually has indefinite reference (typically premodified by the indefinite article) and the second noun is always definite.
40. Distinguish root, stem and base as morphological terms.
“Root”, “stem” and “base” may refer to the same thing in same cases, but they are different from each other in that: A root is that part of a word that remains when all affixes haven been removed; A root is not farther analyzable in morphological forms; A stem has to do with inflectional features and is the
part that remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed; A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added.
41. Explain the principle of proximity of concord with examples.
The principle of proximity denotes “agreement of the verb with a closely preceding noun phrase in preference to agreement with the head of the noun phrase that functions as subject”. For example: Neither my wife nor I am coming to the ceremony.
Not only the layers but also the coach was responsible for the defeat.
42. List the types of subordinate clauses.
Subordinate clauses are usually divided into three types by their function: relative clauses, adverbial clausesand nominal clauses. In form, subordinate clauses may also be divided into finite clauses non-finite clause and verbless clauses.
43. Explain the differences between a tag question with a final rising tone and one with a final falling tone.
With a rising tone, the question express the speaker’s neutral expectation of the hearer’s response and to verify the truth of the proposition in the statement.
With a falling tone, the speaker asks for the hearer’s confirmation of the statement. It can be regarded as similar to an exclamation.
44. What are generic reference and specific reference?
Generic reference and specific reference are the two uses of articles. Generic reference indicates the whole species or king, while specific reference indicates one specific people or thing.
45. Given the present time as its most important meaning, what is special about the simple present when it is used to refer to the past and the future?
When the simple present refers to the past, it brings the past events or states to the present time as if they were actually happening at the moment of speech, it is used in narrative writing to achieve vividness. It can be found in 1> newspaper headline, 2>photographic options, 3> state direction and 4> utterances with verbs of communication (say, hear, tell, etc.) Simple present referring to the future is common in dependent clauses.
46. What concord principle do we normally apply to the existential sentence?
Concord in the existential sentence normally complies with the notional principle. The verb agrees with the notional subject.
47. What are restrictive adjectives and non-restrictive adjectives?
A restrictive adjective helps identify the reference of the noun by describing its distinctive qualities. Whereas a non-restrictive adjective merely provide some additional information which is usually not essential for the identification of the referent.
48. Point out instances of the sativa and dynamic uses of prepositions with reference to spatial relations.
The car was parked in front of the building. (In front of indicates a static location)
He jumped into the river. (Into indicates the direction of a movement)
49. What are the differences between determiners and adjectives?
Determiners and adjectives are different in five ways:
1> Determiners usually precede adjectives in premodification;
2> The choice of determiners is often determined by the head word but not that of adjectives;
3> Adjectives describe the head word by showing its characteristics determine the head word by identifying or quantifying.
4> Adjectives can postmodify the head word, but not determiners (except enough);
5> Adjectives have comparative forms, inflectional or periphrastic, but not determiners (except few, little, many and much).
50. What are some of the typical semantic components of the present progressive?
Some of the typical semantic components of the present progressive are: duration, simultaneity, temporariness, incompleteness, vividness, emphasis, etc.
下面是语法术语：
语法 grammar
句法 syntax
词法 morphology
结构 structure
层次 rank
句子 sentence
从句 clause
词组 phrase
词类 part of speech
单词 word
实词 notional word
虚词 structrural word
名词 noun
专有名词 proper noun
普通名词 common noun
可数名词 countable noun
不可数名词 uncountable noun
抽象名词 abstract noun
具体名词 concret moun
物质名词 material noun
集体名词 collective noun
个体名词 individual noun
介词 preposition
连词 conjunction
动词 verb
主动词 main verb
及物动词 transitive verb
不及物动词 intransitive verb
系动词 link verb
助动词 auxiliary verb
情态动词 modal verb
规则动词 regular verb
不规则动词 irregular verb
短语动词 phrasal verb
限定动词 finite verb
非限定动词 infinite verb
使役动词 causative verb
感官动词 verb of senses
动态动词 event verb
静态动词 state verb
感叹词 exclamation
形容词 adjective
副词 adverb
方式副词 adverb of manner
程度副词 adverb of degree
时间副词 adverb of time
地点副词 adverb of place
修饰性副词 adjunct
连接性副词 conjunct
疑问副词 interogative adverb
关系副词 relative adverb
代词 pronoun
人称代词 personal pronoun
物主代词 possesive pronoun
反身代词 reflexive pronoun
相互代词 reciprocal pronoun
指示代词 demonstrative pronoun
疑问代词 interrogative pronoun
关系代词 relative pronoun
不定代词 indefinite pronoun
物主代词 possecive pronoun
名词性物主代词 nominal possesive prnoun
形容词性物主代词 adjectival possesive pronoun
冠词 article
定冠词 definite article
不定冠词 indefinite article
数词 numeral
基数词 cardinal numeral
序数词 ordinal numeral
分数词 fractional numeral
形式 form
单数形式 singular form
复数形式 plural form
限定动词 finite verb form
非限定动词 non-finite verb form
原形 base form
从句 clause
从属句 subordinate clause
并列句 coordinate clause
名词从句 nominal clause
定语从句 attributive clause
状语从句 adverbial clause
宾语从句 object clause
主语从句 subject clause
同位语从句 appositive clause
时间状语从句 adverbial clause of time
地点状语从句 adverbial clause of place
方式状语从句 adverbial clause of manner
让步状语从句 adverbial clause of concession
原因状语从句 adverbial clause of cause
结果状语从句 adverbial clause of result
目的状语从句 adverbial clause of purpose
条件状语从句 adverbial clause of condition
真实条件状语从句 adverbial clause of real condition 非真实条件状语从句 adverbial clause of unreal condition 含蓄条件句 adverbial clause of implied condition 错综条件句 adverbial clause of mixed condition
句子 sentence
简单句 simple sentence
并列句 compound sentence
复合句 complex sentence
并列复合句 compound complex sentence
陈述句 declarative sentence
疑问句 interrogative sentence
一般疑问句 general question
特殊疑问句 special question
选择疑问句 alternative question
附加疑问句 tag question
反义疑问句 disjunctive question
修辞疑问句 rhetorical question
感叹疑问句 exclamatory question
存在句 existential sentence
肯定句 positive sentwence
否定句 negative sentence
祈使句 imperative sentence
省略句 elliptical sentence
感叹句 exclamatory sentence
基本句型 basic sentence patern
句子成分 members of sentences
主语 subject
谓语 predicate
宾语 object
双宾语 dual object
直接宾语 direct object
间接宾语 indirect object
复合宾语 complex object
同源宾语 cognate object
补语 complement
主补 subject complement
宾补 object complement
表语 predicative
定语 attribute
同位语 appositive
状语 adverbial
句法关系 syntatic relationship
并列 coordinate
从属 subordination
修饰 modification
前置修饰 pre-modification
后置修饰 post-modification
限制 restriction
双重限制 double-restriction
非限制 non-restriction
数 number
单数形式 singular form
复数形式 plural form
规则形式 regular form
不规则形式 irregular form
格 case
普通格 common case
所有格 possessive case
主格 nominative case c
宾格 objective case
性 gender
阳性 masculine
阴性 feminine
通性 common
中性 neuter
人称 person
第一人称 first person
第二人称 second person
第三人称 third person
时态 tense
过去将来时 past future tense
过去将来进行时 past future continuous tense
过去将来完成时 past future perfect tense
一般现在时 present simple tense
一般过去时 past simple tense
一般将来时 future simple tense
现在完成时 past perfect tense
过去完成时 present perfect tense
将来完成时 future perfect tense
现在进行时 present continuous tense
过去进行时 past continuous tense
将来进行时 future continuous tense
过去将来进行时 past future continuous tense
现在完成进行时 present perfect continuous tense
过去完成进行时 past perfect continuous tense
语态 voice
主动语态 active voice
被动语态 passive voice
语气 mood
陈述语气 indicative mood
祈使语气 imperative mood
虚拟语气 subjunctive mood
否定 negation
否定范围 scope of negation
全部否定 full negation
局部否定 partial negation
转移否定 shift of negation
语序 order
自然语序 natural order
倒装语序 inversion
全部倒装 full inversion
部分倒装 partial inversion
直接引语 direct speech
间接引语 indirect speech
自由直接引语 free direct speech
自由间接引语 free indirect speech
一致 agreement
主谓一致 subject-predicate agreement
语法一致 grammatical agreement
概念一致 notional agreement
就近原则 principle of proximity
强调 emphasis
重复 repetition
语音 pronunciation
语调 tone
升调 rising tone
降调 falling tone
降升调 falling-rising tone
文体 style
正式文体 formal
非正式文体 informal
口语 spoken/oral English
套语 formulistic expression
英国英语 British English
美国英语 American English
用法 usage
感情色彩 emotional coloring
褒义 commendatory
贬义 derogatory
幽默 humorous
讽刺 sarcastic
挖苦 ironic
肯定词 非肯定词
some any 一些
something anything 一些事
somewhere anywhere 某处；任何地方
somehow in any way 以某种方式
somewhat any （the ） 在某种程度上
still any longer 仍然；（不）再
already yet 已经；尚（未）
sometimes ever 有时；曾经
too either 也
助动词(auxiliary)主要有两类：基本助动词(primary auxiliary) 和情态助动词(modal auxiliary) 。基本助动词有三个：do, have和be ；情态助动词有十三个：may, might; can, could; will, would; shall, should; must, need, dare, used to, ought to.