关于日本和韩国历史、政治、外交等方面
的了解与探讨
一、 日本
（一） 历史概况
一至二万年之前的日本是和中国大陆连接；后来，由于地壳的变动与大陆分离。因为是岛国，所以不容易受外国侵略；同时，与大陆的距离近在咫尺，也能汲取外国进步的文化。日本一方面保持与大陆文化的共通性，另一方面又孕育出有独立性的日本文化，直至今日。
从一万年前到公元三世纪，经历了绳文时代和弥生时代，当时虽然小国林立，但逐渐的也被统一。 公元四世纪，天皇统一了日本。公元十二世纪末武士取得政权，直到十九世纪，进入了幕府时代。公元十七世纪初，幕府拒绝与外国交流，进入锁国时期。直到商人的经济力量压倒了武士后，武士所支配的政治体制，也就开始瓦解。一八五三年日本藉着美国贝利提督来日之契机，打开锁国时代的封闭政策，开始了通商贸易。这也将幕府逼到穷途未路的地步，终于促使幕府于一八六七年让出了政权。
次年一八六八年，明治天皇登基，成立了新政府。幕府垮台后，在二十年的期间日本以欧洲诸国为典范，实行各种政策，发展成现代化国家，充实了国力。但也和美国、英国、法国、荷兰、俄国等国，在既得权益之间，经历了若干的冲突。
一九二九年的经济恐慌危机，促使军部势力抬头，渐渐地，军部势力控制了日本政治及外交领导权，而在一九三七年爆发了中日战争。到了一九四一年十二月，日本与美国、英国之间，终于爆发太平洋战争。由于一九三九年德国已在欧洲点燃了战火，迫使日本、德国、意大利三个轴心同盟国与各国联军间的战争，成为世界大战。
在各国联军的打击下，日本于在一九四五年八月宣告无条件投降，世界第二次大战宣告终结。
日本在二战后，大力发展经济，积极对外交往，走向民主发展道路。在此期间经济高速增长，国家实力明显恢复，出现了战后的社会繁荣景象，迅速成长为世界上最发达国家之一。
（二） 日本目前主要政党及其理念和地位
目前参加国会活动的主要政党有自民党、民主党、公明党、自由党 、日本共产党、社民党、保守党等。
1、自由民主党（简称“自民党”）：执政党。1955年11月由原自由党和民主党合并而成，是历史较长的传统保守政党，在中小城市和农村势力较强。
2、民主党：最大在野党，仅次于自民党的第二大政党。1998年4月成立，由原民主党、民政党、新党友爱和民主改革联合四党组建而成。该党主张推行民主、稳健的政治路线，构筑新自由社会。
3、公明党： 1964年11月成立，其母体为宗教团体创价学会。1970年6月实行政教分离，93年8月参加非自民联合政权。该党基
本政策主张总体上仍沿袭了过去公明党“中道路线”的传统，坚持稳健的政治路线，提倡和平主义。
4、自由党： 1998年1月成立，绝大多数成员来自原新进党。该党属保守政党，内外政策与自民党十分接近，主张实现小政府，建立自由、公平、透明的社会，使日本成为与大国平起平坐的“普通国家”。
5、日本共产党：在野左翼政党。1922年7月15日成立，战后获合法地位。2000年11月，日共召开第二十二次全国代表大会，修改党章，把党的性质由“工人阶级的先锋政党”改为“工人阶级政党”和“全体日本国民的政党”。
6、社会民主党（简称“社民党”）：在野党。1945年11月成立，近年来实力大减。
7、保守党： 2000年4月由自由党26名成员脱党组成。该党主张要体现“保守主义”的真正含义，维护国家、社会的安定及和谐。
（三）日本首相选举程序
日本实行责任内阁制，首相和内阁主要成员均为议员。内阁首相，由国会议员选举、天皇任命、间接选举产生。
（四）日本对主要国家的外交政策
1、对中国的外交政策。中国作为日本的主要邻国，自古以来都有贸易往来和文化交流，也有过争端和冲突。特别是第二次世界大战日本入侵中国、对待战争的态度及日本对台政策，对日中关系影响很大。日本国内党派众多，理念各异，对华政策也各不相同，有极右
势力、极左势力、温和势力等，且日本政权更迭较快，不能保持一种长期稳定的政策和原则。政治制度的差异也使日本对中国保持距离，至使日中两国外交关系始终不愠不火，难以达成信任。
2、对美国的外交政策。日本是美国的铁杆盟友，与美国有非常亲密的关系，政治、经济、外交等各方面的政策都紧跟美国的动向。
（五）日本最近发生的政治、经济事件
1、作为纪念中日邦交正常化35周年的特别企划，《35号投手温家宝》一书由日本侨报社推出，12月18日起在日本正式发行。中国外交部副部长、前驻日大使王毅在推荐词中说，该书生动地再现了温家宝总理“融冰之旅”的感人一幕。2007年4月11日至13日，温家宝对日本的“融冰之旅”，实现了6年半以来中国总理的首次访日。
中日关系近期逐步走向温和，福田康夫当选日本首相后，更加推动了中日关系向友好方面发展，双方均表现出了良好的诚意，加强了互动和沟通，《35号投手温家宝》一书此时出版，也反映出日本有关方面的态度。
2、《日本经济新闻》１２日报道，日本本田汽车公司将投资３００亿日元(１美元约合１１０日元)在中国广州新建发动机工厂。 本田与广州汽车工业集团合资的“广州本田”此次将在广州市内新建产能为２０万台发动机的工厂，计划２００９年开始生产。工厂投产后，本田在中国的发动机产能将增加四成。
日本与中国始终保持着密切的经济关系，贸易往来一般不会过大地受两国关系的影响。
Korea
Korean History
Korea is a modern nation with a history of over 5,000 years. Korean history is thought to have begun with the settlement of the peninsula by Tungusic tribes, who spoke a Ural-Altaic language, followed shamanic religion, and had a paleolithic culture, about 3000 BC. Tangun, a legendary figure, is said to have established the first Korean "kingdom" of Choson in 2333 BC. The introduction of bronze tools from China and the
establishment of Chinese military colonies in Korea in 108 BC led to the sinicization of Korea and the rapid development of agriculture.
Three Kingdoms
Meanwhile, three loosely organized Korean tribal federations, which emerged in the 3d century BC, were transformed into kingdoms. The founding of the kingdoms of Silla in 57 BC, of Koguryo in 37 BC, and of Paekche in 18 BC (traditional dates) marked the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period in Korean history. Koguryo, initially based in southern Manchuria,
expanded southward and in ¥ 313 overthrew Lolang (Lo-lang),
the last Chinese stronghold in Korea.
During this period, the influence of Confucianism, Daoism
(Taoism), and other forms of Chinese culture increased in Korea. Buddhism also grew, particularly in Paekche and Silla. Silla expelled (562) the JapaneseÑwho had established a foothold on the coast in the 4th centuryÑand between 660 and 668 destroyed both Paekche and Koguryo with Chinese help. Having unified Korea, Silla became a highly centralized state in which Buddhism and the arts flourished.
In the 9th century, however, serious provincial rebellions broke out, and in 936 the kingdom was finally overthrown by rebels who had established the Koryo dynasty, with its capital at Kaesong, in 918.
Koryo
Under the Koryo dynasty power was initially wielded by
civilian administrators, and the political, social, economic, and educational systems of Korea became increasingly sinicized. In 1170 the military seized control and suppressed Buddhism. By
the end of the 12th century a military family, the Ch'oe, ruled the country, but opposition to it mounted, especially after the
Mongols began their invasions in 1231. In 1258 the Ch'oe were deposed, and their civilian successor submitted to the Mongols.
A relatively peaceful period of Koryo rule under Mongol suzerainty followed. The invention (1234) of a new printing system with movable type allowed the ready dissemination of Buddhist and Confucian writings, and Korean potters
manufactured high-quality green Koryo ware (see Korean art). A revolt against Mongol rule in 1356 brought another period of disorder. Finally, in 1392, the Koryo king was overthrown by the Joseon Dynasty, aided by the new Ming dynasty in China, to whom the Yi swore allegiance.
Yi
The Joseon Dynasty, which established a new capital at
Hanyang (now Seoul), rejected Buddhism and established Ju Xi (Chu Hsi) Confucianism as a national orthodoxy. It also
improved relations with its Chinese overlords and brought about economic and social reforms. A well-functioning Confucian
bureaucracy, an orderly social structure, rapid development of the educational system accompanied by the publication of many books, and the growth of science and technology seemed to promise a bright future. The adoption of the Korean writing system, called hangul, by King Sejong (r. 1418-50) in 1443 marked the high point in cultural development.
From the early 16th century, however, growing factionalism among scholars, mismanagement of state affairs by officials, court intrigues and power struggles, usurpation of power and privileges by the landed gentry, decline of foreign trade, and increasing tax burdens brought about political instability as well as economic decline and social upheavals. A reform school known as Silhak arose among scholars and officials, but Confucian conservatism prevented change.
The devastating but unsuccessful invasions (1592-98) by the Japanese under Hideyoshi and the wars of conquest (1627-37) by the Manchu worsened the internal situation. Vassalage to the Manchu, who went on to overthrow the Ming and establish the Qing (Ch'ing) dynasty in China, fostered Korean antiforeign sentiments. The state of the nation continued to deteriorate as
rebellions and peasant uprisings erupted.
Contact with the West and Japan
Roman Catholicism was brought to Korea from China in the 17th century, and what was called Western Learning developed.
A new native religion called Tonghak (Eastern Learning) arose in 1860 and won the support of the underprivileged and mistreated peasantry. Persecution of the Christians and the destruction of a U.S. merchant ship in 1866 helped provoke Western assaults by the French in 1866 and the United States in 1871.
The Koreans resisted these attacks, but in 1876 the Japanese took advantage of the governmental disruption within Korea to force a commercial treaty on the Yi. Six years later Korea, the "hermit kingdom," also opened its doors to the Western nations, beginning with a treaty with the United States.
After the opening of Korea rivalries developedÑparticularly among China, Japan, and RussiaÑfor predominance of influence over the weak Korean state. In 1894 followers of Tonghak
revolted against the government, and China sent troops to
suppress the rebellion. Japan also sent troops to Korea. The First Sino-Japanese War ensued (1894-95), and victorious Japan established hegemony over the nominally independent Korea. After defeating the Russians in the Russo-Japanese War
(1904-05), Japan was strong enough to force Korea to become a protectorate. After some Korean resistance Japan formally annexed the country in 1910.
Modern History
During the Japanese colonial period (1905-45) the Koreans endured political suppression, economic exploitation, and social and educational discrimination, in addition to attempts to
Japanize their culture. The so-called March movement of 1919 mounted massive demonstrations against colonial rule and was brutally suppressed. Subsequent independence movements were similarly treated. In the meantime Korea became an important economic and military base for Japan's continental expansion.
The Japanese surrender to the Allies in 1945 liberated Korea from Japan, but the country was divided along the 38th parallel
of latitude between the U.S. and Soviet occupation forces. In November 1947 the United Nations adopted a resolution to set up a unified independent Korean government, but the UN commission responsible was able to hold elections only in the southern (U.S.) zone. On Aug. 15, 1948, the Republic of Korea was inaugurated, ending U.S. military rule in the South. In North Korea the Communists established their own regime and inaugurated the Democratic People's Republic of Korea in September 1948. Thus the temporary military demarcation line became the boundary between two Korean states. Since the devastating Korean War (1950-53), which resulted from a North Korean invasion of the South, there has been only an uneasy truce along the line.
关于日本和韩国历史、政治、外交等方面
的了解与探讨
一、 日本
（一） 历史概况
一至二万年之前的日本是和中国大陆连接；后来，由于地壳的变动与大陆分离。因为是岛国，所以不容易受外国侵略；同时，与大陆的距离近在咫尺，也能汲取外国进步的文化。日本一方面保持与大陆文化的共通性，另一方面又孕育出有独立性的日本文化，直至今日。
从一万年前到公元三世纪，经历了绳文时代和弥生时代，当时虽然小国林立，但逐渐的也被统一。 公元四世纪，天皇统一了日本。公元十二世纪末武士取得政权，直到十九世纪，进入了幕府时代。公元十七世纪初，幕府拒绝与外国交流，进入锁国时期。直到商人的经济力量压倒了武士后，武士所支配的政治体制，也就开始瓦解。一八五三年日本藉着美国贝利提督来日之契机，打开锁国时代的封闭政策，开始了通商贸易。这也将幕府逼到穷途未路的地步，终于促使幕府于一八六七年让出了政权。
次年一八六八年，明治天皇登基，成立了新政府。幕府垮台后，在二十年的期间日本以欧洲诸国为典范，实行各种政策，发展成现代化国家，充实了国力。但也和美国、英国、法国、荷兰、俄国等国，在既得权益之间，经历了若干的冲突。
一九二九年的经济恐慌危机，促使军部势力抬头，渐渐地，军部势力控制了日本政治及外交领导权，而在一九三七年爆发了中日战争。到了一九四一年十二月，日本与美国、英国之间，终于爆发太平洋战争。由于一九三九年德国已在欧洲点燃了战火，迫使日本、德国、意大利三个轴心同盟国与各国联军间的战争，成为世界大战。
在各国联军的打击下，日本于在一九四五年八月宣告无条件投降，世界第二次大战宣告终结。
日本在二战后，大力发展经济，积极对外交往，走向民主发展道路。在此期间经济高速增长，国家实力明显恢复，出现了战后的社会繁荣景象，迅速成长为世界上最发达国家之一。
（二） 日本目前主要政党及其理念和地位
目前参加国会活动的主要政党有自民党、民主党、公明党、自由党 、日本共产党、社民党、保守党等。
1、自由民主党（简称“自民党”）：执政党。1955年11月由原自由党和民主党合并而成，是历史较长的传统保守政党，在中小城市和农村势力较强。
2、民主党：最大在野党，仅次于自民党的第二大政党。1998年4月成立，由原民主党、民政党、新党友爱和民主改革联合四党组建而成。该党主张推行民主、稳健的政治路线，构筑新自由社会。
3、公明党： 1964年11月成立，其母体为宗教团体创价学会。1970年6月实行政教分离，93年8月参加非自民联合政权。该党基
本政策主张总体上仍沿袭了过去公明党“中道路线”的传统，坚持稳健的政治路线，提倡和平主义。
4、自由党： 1998年1月成立，绝大多数成员来自原新进党。该党属保守政党，内外政策与自民党十分接近，主张实现小政府，建立自由、公平、透明的社会，使日本成为与大国平起平坐的“普通国家”。
5、日本共产党：在野左翼政党。1922年7月15日成立，战后获合法地位。2000年11月，日共召开第二十二次全国代表大会，修改党章，把党的性质由“工人阶级的先锋政党”改为“工人阶级政党”和“全体日本国民的政党”。
6、社会民主党（简称“社民党”）：在野党。1945年11月成立，近年来实力大减。
7、保守党： 2000年4月由自由党26名成员脱党组成。该党主张要体现“保守主义”的真正含义，维护国家、社会的安定及和谐。
（三）日本首相选举程序
日本实行责任内阁制，首相和内阁主要成员均为议员。内阁首相，由国会议员选举、天皇任命、间接选举产生。
（四）日本对主要国家的外交政策
1、对中国的外交政策。中国作为日本的主要邻国，自古以来都有贸易往来和文化交流，也有过争端和冲突。特别是第二次世界大战日本入侵中国、对待战争的态度及日本对台政策，对日中关系影响很大。日本国内党派众多，理念各异，对华政策也各不相同，有极右
势力、极左势力、温和势力等，且日本政权更迭较快，不能保持一种长期稳定的政策和原则。政治制度的差异也使日本对中国保持距离，至使日中两国外交关系始终不愠不火，难以达成信任。
2、对美国的外交政策。日本是美国的铁杆盟友，与美国有非常亲密的关系，政治、经济、外交等各方面的政策都紧跟美国的动向。
（五）日本最近发生的政治、经济事件
1、作为纪念中日邦交正常化35周年的特别企划，《35号投手温家宝》一书由日本侨报社推出，12月18日起在日本正式发行。中国外交部副部长、前驻日大使王毅在推荐词中说，该书生动地再现了温家宝总理“融冰之旅”的感人一幕。2007年4月11日至13日，温家宝对日本的“融冰之旅”，实现了6年半以来中国总理的首次访日。
中日关系近期逐步走向温和，福田康夫当选日本首相后，更加推动了中日关系向友好方面发展，双方均表现出了良好的诚意，加强了互动和沟通，《35号投手温家宝》一书此时出版，也反映出日本有关方面的态度。
2、《日本经济新闻》１２日报道，日本本田汽车公司将投资３００亿日元(１美元约合１１０日元)在中国广州新建发动机工厂。 本田与广州汽车工业集团合资的“广州本田”此次将在广州市内新建产能为２０万台发动机的工厂，计划２００９年开始生产。工厂投产后，本田在中国的发动机产能将增加四成。
日本与中国始终保持着密切的经济关系，贸易往来一般不会过大地受两国关系的影响。
Korea
Korean History
Korea is a modern nation with a history of over 5,000 years. Korean history is thought to have begun with the settlement of the peninsula by Tungusic tribes, who spoke a Ural-Altaic language, followed shamanic religion, and had a paleolithic culture, about 3000 BC. Tangun, a legendary figure, is said to have established the first Korean "kingdom" of Choson in 2333 BC. The introduction of bronze tools from China and the
establishment of Chinese military colonies in Korea in 108 BC led to the sinicization of Korea and the rapid development of agriculture.
Three Kingdoms
Meanwhile, three loosely organized Korean tribal federations, which emerged in the 3d century BC, were transformed into kingdoms. The founding of the kingdoms of Silla in 57 BC, of Koguryo in 37 BC, and of Paekche in 18 BC (traditional dates) marked the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period in Korean history. Koguryo, initially based in southern Manchuria,
expanded southward and in ¥ 313 overthrew Lolang (Lo-lang),
the last Chinese stronghold in Korea.
During this period, the influence of Confucianism, Daoism
(Taoism), and other forms of Chinese culture increased in Korea. Buddhism also grew, particularly in Paekche and Silla. Silla expelled (562) the JapaneseÑwho had established a foothold on the coast in the 4th centuryÑand between 660 and 668 destroyed both Paekche and Koguryo with Chinese help. Having unified Korea, Silla became a highly centralized state in which Buddhism and the arts flourished.
In the 9th century, however, serious provincial rebellions broke out, and in 936 the kingdom was finally overthrown by rebels who had established the Koryo dynasty, with its capital at Kaesong, in 918.
Koryo
Under the Koryo dynasty power was initially wielded by
civilian administrators, and the political, social, economic, and educational systems of Korea became increasingly sinicized. In 1170 the military seized control and suppressed Buddhism. By
the end of the 12th century a military family, the Ch'oe, ruled the country, but opposition to it mounted, especially after the
Mongols began their invasions in 1231. In 1258 the Ch'oe were deposed, and their civilian successor submitted to the Mongols.
A relatively peaceful period of Koryo rule under Mongol suzerainty followed. The invention (1234) of a new printing system with movable type allowed the ready dissemination of Buddhist and Confucian writings, and Korean potters
manufactured high-quality green Koryo ware (see Korean art). A revolt against Mongol rule in 1356 brought another period of disorder. Finally, in 1392, the Koryo king was overthrown by the Joseon Dynasty, aided by the new Ming dynasty in China, to whom the Yi swore allegiance.
Yi
The Joseon Dynasty, which established a new capital at
Hanyang (now Seoul), rejected Buddhism and established Ju Xi (Chu Hsi) Confucianism as a national orthodoxy. It also
improved relations with its Chinese overlords and brought about economic and social reforms. A well-functioning Confucian
bureaucracy, an orderly social structure, rapid development of the educational system accompanied by the publication of many books, and the growth of science and technology seemed to promise a bright future. The adoption of the Korean writing system, called hangul, by King Sejong (r. 1418-50) in 1443 marked the high point in cultural development.
From the early 16th century, however, growing factionalism among scholars, mismanagement of state affairs by officials, court intrigues and power struggles, usurpation of power and privileges by the landed gentry, decline of foreign trade, and increasing tax burdens brought about political instability as well as economic decline and social upheavals. A reform school known as Silhak arose among scholars and officials, but Confucian conservatism prevented change.
The devastating but unsuccessful invasions (1592-98) by the Japanese under Hideyoshi and the wars of conquest (1627-37) by the Manchu worsened the internal situation. Vassalage to the Manchu, who went on to overthrow the Ming and establish the Qing (Ch'ing) dynasty in China, fostered Korean antiforeign sentiments. The state of the nation continued to deteriorate as
rebellions and peasant uprisings erupted.
Contact with the West and Japan
Roman Catholicism was brought to Korea from China in the 17th century, and what was called Western Learning developed.
A new native religion called Tonghak (Eastern Learning) arose in 1860 and won the support of the underprivileged and mistreated peasantry. Persecution of the Christians and the destruction of a U.S. merchant ship in 1866 helped provoke Western assaults by the French in 1866 and the United States in 1871.
The Koreans resisted these attacks, but in 1876 the Japanese took advantage of the governmental disruption within Korea to force a commercial treaty on the Yi. Six years later Korea, the "hermit kingdom," also opened its doors to the Western nations, beginning with a treaty with the United States.
After the opening of Korea rivalries developedÑparticularly among China, Japan, and RussiaÑfor predominance of influence over the weak Korean state. In 1894 followers of Tonghak
revolted against the government, and China sent troops to
suppress the rebellion. Japan also sent troops to Korea. The First Sino-Japanese War ensued (1894-95), and victorious Japan established hegemony over the nominally independent Korea. After defeating the Russians in the Russo-Japanese War
(1904-05), Japan was strong enough to force Korea to become a protectorate. After some Korean resistance Japan formally annexed the country in 1910.
Modern History
During the Japanese colonial period (1905-45) the Koreans endured political suppression, economic exploitation, and social and educational discrimination, in addition to attempts to
Japanize their culture. The so-called March movement of 1919 mounted massive demonstrations against colonial rule and was brutally suppressed. Subsequent independence movements were similarly treated. In the meantime Korea became an important economic and military base for Japan's continental expansion.
The Japanese surrender to the Allies in 1945 liberated Korea from Japan, but the country was divided along the 38th parallel
of latitude between the U.S. and Soviet occupation forces. In November 1947 the United Nations adopted a resolution to set up a unified independent Korean government, but the UN commission responsible was able to hold elections only in the southern (U.S.) zone. On Aug. 15, 1948, the Republic of Korea was inaugurated, ending U.S. military rule in the South. In North Korea the Communists established their own regime and inaugurated the Democratic People's Republic of Korea in September 1948. Thus the temporary military demarcation line became the boundary between two Korean states. Since the devastating Korean War (1950-53), which resulted from a North Korean invasion of the South, there has been only an uneasy truce along the line.