理论部分：
一、四次翻译高潮 Four important periods of translation in China
1、Time:
• 1. East Han Dynasty – Tang Dynasty
• 2. Ming Dynasty – Qing Dynasty
• 3. May 4th Movement – the 1950s
• 4. the 1980s --
2、Major Fields of translation for each period
• 1st period: Sanskrit Buddhist Scripture
• 2nd period: Science & technology; social sciences and literature
• 3rd period: Literature; social sciences
• 4th period: Social sciences; Literature; Science & technology
3、Major Translators for each period
• 1st period: 1st translators:安世高， 支谦，道安; Four outstanding translators: Indian
scholars: 鸠摩罗什(Kumarajiva)，真谛(Paramartha); 玄奘，义净/不空.
• 2nd period:徐光启,利玛窦； 严复， 林纾， 梁启超，苏曼殊，伍光键
• 3rd period:鲁迅， 郭沫若，茅盾，张谷若，朱生豪，傅东华，钱钟书, 董秋斯，傅雷 • 4th period:杨宪益，戴乃迭，许渊冲，张培基等
4、Specific works translated: examples
• 2nd period: 徐光启: 《几何原本》；严复: 《天演论》(Evolution and Ethics) ; 林纾: 《巴
黎茶花女遗事》(La Dame aux Camelia by Alexander Dumas fils.) Lin Shu (translated
156/185 literary works).
• 3rd period:张谷若(1903-1994): 《还乡》(The Return of the Natives),《苔丝》Tess of the D’
urbervilles
• 朱生豪(1912-1944): 31 Plays by Shakespeare
• 傅东华(1893-1971): Gone with the Wind，Paradise Lost, Scarlet Letter. Illiad. 归化
• 傅雷(1908-1966): 《高老头 》,《追忆逝水年华》(A La Cherche du Temps Perdu)
• 钱钟书(1910-1998)：co-translator of Selected works of Mao Zedong.
• 董秋斯(1899-1969)：David Copperfield, War and Peace
• 4th period: many foreign literary works into Chinese. Chinese literary works into English. • 杨宪益，戴乃迭，Chinese classics translation e.g. A Dream of Red Mansion, 许渊冲,
Chinese poetry translation. 张培基, modern Chinese prose translation.
5、Features of translation in each period
（1）1st period:
• Translation method:
• Literal translation is advocated and preferred.
• Translation theory:
• 支谦在《法句经序》(Preface to Dhammapada)中提出“因循本旨，不加文饰” 。
• 道安：案本而传(convey as the original says)； 提出“五失本，三不易”five deviations from
the original; three difficulties)
• 玄奘: 五不翻(transliteration in five cases)
• eight conditions for translators彦琮: 八备
• 2nd period: many foreign literary works were translated into classic Chinese.
• Rewriting characterizes the translations.
（2）3rd period:
• Most translators tend to translate liberally.
Lu Xun puts forward the standard of faithfulness rather than smoothness.
Zhu Shenghao argues that the translator should keep the flavor and spirit of the original.
Fu Lei puts forth the standard of shensi.
Qian Zhongshu puts forth huajing
Many translation theorists such as Nida, Catford, Peter Newmark have become familiar to
Chinese scholars and other readers.
• Many schools of translation theory have been introduced to China.
二、翻译技巧：
（一）衔接与连贯 coherence and cohesion
Devices of textual cohesion
• 1. lexical cohesion:
• (1) synonymy (repetition included)
• It refers to the lexical chain made up of synonym, near synonym, superordinate, hyponym
and general word.
• In practice, the recognition of the lexical chain is a guarantee of correct translation.
• (2) collocation
• It refers to the words in a text whose meanings are related by the context though they may
have different meanings in other texts.
• If we know this clearly, we can correctly understand the meaning of some seemingly
irrelevant or difficult words, and thus translate the text properly
• 2. Grammatical cohesion:
• 1). reference (conjunctions included)
• Reference includes personal, demonstrative, comparative and clausal reference. In
translation, the first two references are more helpful.
• In E-C translation, the personal reference in English is replaced by lexical cohesion in
Chinese such as the repetition of the same noun.
• 2). substitution
• substitution and repetition
• Substitution means that substitution patterns (so, do etc.) are used to replace some words in
previous text to make the text concise and clear.
• They include verbal and clausal substitution.
• Actually, the substitution pattern in English is often replaced by lexical cohesion in Chinese.
And some lexical cohesion in Chinese is often replaced by substitution pattern in English.
• 3). ellipsis
• Coherence means that words, sentences, and groups of sentences in one text are logically
connected.
• 衔接和连贯的关系：衔接是一种语义关系，在语篇中体现为具体的词汇和语法形式。
衔接手段是借助意义来实现衔接关系的。衔接是语篇连贯性实现的一种手段。语篇表
层的衔接关系是建立在深层的连贯关系基础上的。
（二）Culture and Translation 文化与翻译
• Two relationships between culture and translation
• A. micro-level:
• This is related to the strategies of translating the culture-specific words. The strategies
include transliteration, literal translation, substitution, liberal translation, translation with
explanation, and translation with notes. The examples are on the two textbooks: see chapter
9 of E-C textbook, and chapters 3（3.5 &3.6) of C-E textbook. • • • • •
• B. macro-level:
• On the one hand, how social-cultural elements such as patronage, ideology, poetics
influence the choice of translation materials, the translation strategies, and the reception of
translated literature, and on the other hand, how translations influence the target culture.
（三）The translation of extra-positions外位语结构的翻译
• Definition:
• Extra-position means an independent word, phrase or clause and refers to the same
thing as one element does in the full sentence followed by it.
• Extra-positions are usually separated by a comma or a hyphen from the full sentence. • The appositives are usually a pronoun serving as the subject, object or attribute in the
full sentence.
• 当一个词、词组或句子独立于一个完整句子之外，且与句中某一成分指述同一事物或
与该成分构成包含关系时，居于句外的成分叫外位语，句中的相应成分叫本位语
(appositive)。
• 外位语通常用逗号或破折号隔开，表示与句子内部没有组织上的关系，本位语通常是
代词，充当句子的主语、宾语或定语。
• Features:
• 1.Grammatically, the extra-position can be deleted without damaging the sentence
structure because it is an independent part.
• 从语法的角度看，外位语独立于一个完整的句子之外，因此，外位语在组织结构上与
句子内部无关，即使把它移走，句子结构也不会受到影响。
• 例句：“这个小女孩，人人都喜欢她”。
• 2. It is semantically related to the appositive in the full sentence. They could refer to the
same thing or could be inclusive.
• 外位语与本位语语义相连。
• 外位语与本位语指同一事物时，外位语与本位语构成互指关系或替代关系。如:“炉子
里的火，我让它自己灭掉。”
• 外位语与本位语也可构成包含关系，如:“小张和小李，一个是会记，一个是售货员。 • 3. Functionally, it simplifies the Chinese sentence structure and creates flexible ways of
expressing ideas.
• 从功能的角度看，外位语简化了句子结构，使句子层次清晰化，表达方式更加灵活。 • 当句中存在一个冗长的成分，如主语、宾语或定语，这个句子会显得拖沓复杂，难以
理解。若采用外位语结构，句子便会变得简洁易懂。
• 4. Rhetorically, extra-position has the function of emphasis.
• 从修辞的角度看，外位语结构可以起到强调作用。
• 外位语通常占据突出的位置，因此可以吸引读者的注意力，
• 如:“我的父母，我的老师，关心我的同学，他们都为我这场病操了不少心。”
• Classifications:
• 汉语外位语结构的分类
• 汉语外位语结构有两种分类方法。
• I: 按本位语在句中充当的语法成分，即外位语原本在句中充当的成分，外位语可分为
外位主语、外位宾语和外位定语。如：
• (l)敬爱的周总理，他是我们尊敬和爱戴的人。(外位主语)
• (2)著名的画家齐白石，我买过他的一张画。(外位定语)
II：按本位语和外位语的关系，该结构又可分为称代式(referential)外位语结构和总分式(inclusive)外位语结构。
• Methods of translating extra-positions:
1.Translate the extra-position and omit the appositive 译出还原外位语，省略本位语(还原法） • 英语中常可用包孕结构或简单句译出汉语外位语结构中的还原外位语而省略冗余信
息。
2. division: translate the extra-position as an independent sentence. 拆句法：
3. Inversion: put the extra-position at the end of the English sentence. 倒置法：
4. Use it as the formal subject (译成形式主语结构)
• 由于末端重量的缘故，英语中大量使用形式主语结构。当实义主语较大或结构较复杂
时，往往应置于末端，而在句首用一个形式主语来占据主语的正常位置。这既避免了
头重脚轻的现象，又能使后移的主语得到加强。
• 因而汉语中以意合为主要手段的意念流可以译成英语中的形式主语结构，以符合译人
语的语言规范。
• 5.use extra-positions in English for emphasis.(对应法)
• 外位语结构位于句首或突出的位置，易于吸引读者的注意力，从而起到强调的修辞功
能，因而在翻译时，出于强调的需要，可打破英语句子线性发展的常规，保留汉语外
位语结构的结构特点，实现汉语外位语结构所要表达的句法功能。
（四）Addition & Omission
• Addition:
• Amplification (addition) means supplying necessary words in the translation based on the
accurate comprehension.
• The necessary words added are the result of the differences of parataxis and hypotaxis
between Chinese and English.
• Addition is the result of the need of the meaning, rhetoric, logic, and syntax.
• Addition in C-E translation
• 1. add necessary pronouns.
• 2. add necessary articles.
• 3. add necessary connectives.
• 4. add necessary prepositions.
• 5. add necessary background information.
• Omission
• Definition: Omission means the omitting of some words of the original text in the
translation, while the original meaning remains unchanged.
• It is the result of the need of grammar and rhetoric.
（五）restructuring
I: definition of restructuring
Restructuring refers to the rearrangement of the word order or sentence structure of the
original text and logical order in the target language.
II: reasons for restructuring.
1.The difference of word order
2. The different positions of attributive phrases and clauses
3. The different position of adverbial of time and place:
4. time order ; the order of cause and effect, condition and result，explanation and
conclusion
A. time order: what happens first comes earlier than what happens subsequently in a phrase
or a sentence.
（时序上的先后律）在句子层面上更加表现了这一特性。在叙事时，汉语是以事件为
中心来组织。人们注意的是一件件事顺时间顺序进行，动作所述及的人物相对处于次
要地位。
This order suggests that in E-C translation, if an English sentence contains several actions
that may not be arranged in time order, the translator should rearrange the actions according
to the time order in Chinese.
B. the order of cause and effect, condition and result，（事理上的因果律）explanation and
conclusion(先铺垫，后结论)
In general, in Chinese, the cause comes before the effect and the condition comes before the
result. While, in English, the cause may come before the effect and the effect may come
before the cause. The same is true for condition and result, and explanation and conclusion.
In the translation of complicated sentences into Chinese, it is necessary to rearrange the
structure according to the logical order in Chinese when the original-order-based translation
is non-smooth.
(六) Conversion
• 1.Definition: Conversion means that one word class in the source language is translated as
another word class in the target language.
• 2.reasons for conversion:
• English is a language dominated by Nouns, whereas Chinese is a language dominated by
verbs.
• 3. what to be converted:
• The Chinese verbs are often converted into nouns, prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, v-ing,
v-ed, to do and other parts of speech.
• 2. Conversion in C-E translation:
• a. determination of the main verb and the minor verbs in the Chinese sentence.
• b. in translating, the major verb predicate in English and the minor ones
v-ing, v-ed, to do and prep. Phrase
（七）Diction
• 1.Definition:
• Diction means the choice of word meaning and its expression in translation according to its
• 2.The role of context in translation
• “No context, no translation”.
• Context plays a very important role in translation, in the understanding of word
meaning, sentence structure, cultural element in the source language, and the correct choice
of words and expressions in the target language.
• 3. types of context in translation:
• (1).Linguistic context: the text surrounding an utterance
• (2).Cultural context: the culture in which the text is set
• (3).Cognitive context: the translator’s encyclopedic knowledge about the writer, the
events under discussion, general cultural assumptions, religious beliefs, the target readers’
expectation, the target culture, etc..
Diction in C-E translation: Major Topics
• 1. Exactness of meaning in translation
• In C-E translation, the translator has to consider the style, the range, the good sense, and bad
sense of word meaning, word collocation, and the choice between similar words.
• A. conceptual meaning
• B. false friends
• C. associative meaning
• Because of the cultural differences, different tradition, different customs, the same
associative meaning could be expressed with different objects in different cultures. Substitution, or sometimes explanation, is necessary in translation.
• 2. Clarity of meaning in translation
• Analysis: Because of the feature of parataxis, the meaning of some Chinese words is vague.
In C-E translation, it should be made clear.
• 3. Brevity of meaning in translation
• Analysis: The meaning of some Chinese words are expressed in other English words. So
these words could be left un-translated. E.g.
(八) Negation
I. what is negation?
• Negation refers to the translation of positive expressions in English as negative expressions
in Chinese or the translation of negative expressions in English as positive expressions in Chinese, or vice versa.
• Its purpose is to better and more faithfully convey the original meaning in the target
language.
II. Categories of negative words and expressions in English
Words with negative implication
• (1)English verbs with negative implications:
• fail, refuse, keep off, reject，neglect, exclude, lack, ignore, deny, prevent from, refrain
from, give up, withhold，avoid，stop，turn down，fall short of, lose sight of，wash one's hands of, shut one's eyes to，turn a deaf ear to etc.
• (2).English Nouns with negative implications:
• failure, absence , refusal, ignorance, neglect, exclusion, denial, scarcity.
• (3).English Adj. or adj. phrases with negative implications:
• ignorant, free from, far from, short of, safe from, blind to,, deaf to, dead to, foreign to. • (4).English prep. or prep phrases with negative implications:
• without, but, above, beyond, except, instead of, in place of, anything but, against.
• (5).comparative structures with negative implications:
• more(„) than „can; more„than„; „other than„; „rather than„; would rather
than„.; know better than to do sth.; prefer A to B;
• (6).conjunctions with negative implications:
• unless, before, until, or, than, …
III. Negation in C-E translation
• (I). positive in Chinese but negative in English
• (II). negative in Chinese but positive in English
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• 农家乐rural farm; farm stay; agritainment 教育公平equal access to education 民心工程 projects in the public interest; pro-people projects 医保覆盖面 coverage of basic medical insurance 看病难、看病贵”问题 the problems of “expensive medical bills and difficult access to quality medical services” 火车票实名制 real name ticket booking system 酒后代驾 designated driver 房奴 mortgage slave 忧患意识adversity consciousness 全民医保 basic healthcare services available for the entire population 裸婚 simplistic marriage; bare-handed marriage 地沟油 hogwash oil; recycled cooking oil 法人legal person 法人代表 legal representative 打酱油see no evil; hear no evil; none of my business; I am just passing by; no comment 隐婚族 pseudo-singles 山寨 copycat; Shanzhai; knock-off 潜规则 unspoken rule 富二代 the second-generation rich; silver-spoon kids 错时上下班 staggered office hours 住房空置率 (housing) vacancy rate 阶梯计价 differential pricing; tiered pricing 新型农村合作医疗制度 the New Rural Cooperative Healthcare System 城镇居民/职工基本医保 basic medical insurance for urban residents/employees 低保家庭 household receiving subsistence allowances 公立医院改革试点 pilot projects of the public hospital reform
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 农村扶贫标准：rural poverty line 基层民主：community-level democracy 政治体制改革：political structural reform; reform of the political structure 生态文明建设：promote ecological progress; raise ecological awareness 科学发展观：scientific outlook on development 实现全体人民共同富裕：achieve prosperity for all 社会公平正义：social fairness and justice 有利的国际环境：favorable international conditions/environment 精神文化生活：intellectual pursuit and cultural entertainment 时代特征：the underlying trend of our times 求真务实：be realistic and pragmatic 分配制度：system of income distribution 统筹兼顾：take a holistic/integrated approach 更加奋发有为，兢兢业业地工作：aim higher and work harder 综合国力：overall strength of a country
理论部分：
一、四次翻译高潮 Four important periods of translation in China
1、Time:
• 1. East Han Dynasty – Tang Dynasty
• 2. Ming Dynasty – Qing Dynasty
• 3. May 4th Movement – the 1950s
• 4. the 1980s --
2、Major Fields of translation for each period
• 1st period: Sanskrit Buddhist Scripture
• 2nd period: Science & technology; social sciences and literature
• 3rd period: Literature; social sciences
• 4th period: Social sciences; Literature; Science & technology
3、Major Translators for each period
• 1st period: 1st translators:安世高， 支谦，道安; Four outstanding translators: Indian
scholars: 鸠摩罗什(Kumarajiva)，真谛(Paramartha); 玄奘，义净/不空.
• 2nd period:徐光启,利玛窦； 严复， 林纾， 梁启超，苏曼殊，伍光键
• 3rd period:鲁迅， 郭沫若，茅盾，张谷若，朱生豪，傅东华，钱钟书, 董秋斯，傅雷 • 4th period:杨宪益，戴乃迭，许渊冲，张培基等
4、Specific works translated: examples
• 2nd period: 徐光启: 《几何原本》；严复: 《天演论》(Evolution and Ethics) ; 林纾: 《巴
黎茶花女遗事》(La Dame aux Camelia by Alexander Dumas fils.) Lin Shu (translated
156/185 literary works).
• 3rd period:张谷若(1903-1994): 《还乡》(The Return of the Natives),《苔丝》Tess of the D’
urbervilles
• 朱生豪(1912-1944): 31 Plays by Shakespeare
• 傅东华(1893-1971): Gone with the Wind，Paradise Lost, Scarlet Letter. Illiad. 归化
• 傅雷(1908-1966): 《高老头 》,《追忆逝水年华》(A La Cherche du Temps Perdu)
• 钱钟书(1910-1998)：co-translator of Selected works of Mao Zedong.
• 董秋斯(1899-1969)：David Copperfield, War and Peace
• 4th period: many foreign literary works into Chinese. Chinese literary works into English. • 杨宪益，戴乃迭，Chinese classics translation e.g. A Dream of Red Mansion, 许渊冲,
Chinese poetry translation. 张培基, modern Chinese prose translation.
5、Features of translation in each period
（1）1st period:
• Translation method:
• Literal translation is advocated and preferred.
• Translation theory:
• 支谦在《法句经序》(Preface to Dhammapada)中提出“因循本旨，不加文饰” 。
• 道安：案本而传(convey as the original says)； 提出“五失本，三不易”five deviations from
the original; three difficulties)
• 玄奘: 五不翻(transliteration in five cases)
• eight conditions for translators彦琮: 八备
• 2nd period: many foreign literary works were translated into classic Chinese.
• Rewriting characterizes the translations.
（2）3rd period:
• Most translators tend to translate liberally.
Lu Xun puts forward the standard of faithfulness rather than smoothness.
Zhu Shenghao argues that the translator should keep the flavor and spirit of the original.
Fu Lei puts forth the standard of shensi.
Qian Zhongshu puts forth huajing
Many translation theorists such as Nida, Catford, Peter Newmark have become familiar to
Chinese scholars and other readers.
• Many schools of translation theory have been introduced to China.
二、翻译技巧：
（一）衔接与连贯 coherence and cohesion
Devices of textual cohesion
• 1. lexical cohesion:
• (1) synonymy (repetition included)
• It refers to the lexical chain made up of synonym, near synonym, superordinate, hyponym
and general word.
• In practice, the recognition of the lexical chain is a guarantee of correct translation.
• (2) collocation
• It refers to the words in a text whose meanings are related by the context though they may
have different meanings in other texts.
• If we know this clearly, we can correctly understand the meaning of some seemingly
irrelevant or difficult words, and thus translate the text properly
• 2. Grammatical cohesion:
• 1). reference (conjunctions included)
• Reference includes personal, demonstrative, comparative and clausal reference. In
translation, the first two references are more helpful.
• In E-C translation, the personal reference in English is replaced by lexical cohesion in
Chinese such as the repetition of the same noun.
• 2). substitution
• substitution and repetition
• Substitution means that substitution patterns (so, do etc.) are used to replace some words in
previous text to make the text concise and clear.
• They include verbal and clausal substitution.
• Actually, the substitution pattern in English is often replaced by lexical cohesion in Chinese.
And some lexical cohesion in Chinese is often replaced by substitution pattern in English.
• 3). ellipsis
• Coherence means that words, sentences, and groups of sentences in one text are logically
connected.
• 衔接和连贯的关系：衔接是一种语义关系，在语篇中体现为具体的词汇和语法形式。
衔接手段是借助意义来实现衔接关系的。衔接是语篇连贯性实现的一种手段。语篇表
层的衔接关系是建立在深层的连贯关系基础上的。
（二）Culture and Translation 文化与翻译
• Two relationships between culture and translation
• A. micro-level:
• This is related to the strategies of translating the culture-specific words. The strategies
include transliteration, literal translation, substitution, liberal translation, translation with
explanation, and translation with notes. The examples are on the two textbooks: see chapter
9 of E-C textbook, and chapters 3（3.5 &3.6) of C-E textbook. • • • • •
• B. macro-level:
• On the one hand, how social-cultural elements such as patronage, ideology, poetics
influence the choice of translation materials, the translation strategies, and the reception of
translated literature, and on the other hand, how translations influence the target culture.
（三）The translation of extra-positions外位语结构的翻译
• Definition:
• Extra-position means an independent word, phrase or clause and refers to the same
thing as one element does in the full sentence followed by it.
• Extra-positions are usually separated by a comma or a hyphen from the full sentence. • The appositives are usually a pronoun serving as the subject, object or attribute in the
full sentence.
• 当一个词、词组或句子独立于一个完整句子之外，且与句中某一成分指述同一事物或
与该成分构成包含关系时，居于句外的成分叫外位语，句中的相应成分叫本位语
(appositive)。
• 外位语通常用逗号或破折号隔开，表示与句子内部没有组织上的关系，本位语通常是
代词，充当句子的主语、宾语或定语。
• Features:
• 1.Grammatically, the extra-position can be deleted without damaging the sentence
structure because it is an independent part.
• 从语法的角度看，外位语独立于一个完整的句子之外，因此，外位语在组织结构上与
句子内部无关，即使把它移走，句子结构也不会受到影响。
• 例句：“这个小女孩，人人都喜欢她”。
• 2. It is semantically related to the appositive in the full sentence. They could refer to the
same thing or could be inclusive.
• 外位语与本位语语义相连。
• 外位语与本位语指同一事物时，外位语与本位语构成互指关系或替代关系。如:“炉子
里的火，我让它自己灭掉。”
• 外位语与本位语也可构成包含关系，如:“小张和小李，一个是会记，一个是售货员。 • 3. Functionally, it simplifies the Chinese sentence structure and creates flexible ways of
expressing ideas.
• 从功能的角度看，外位语简化了句子结构，使句子层次清晰化，表达方式更加灵活。 • 当句中存在一个冗长的成分，如主语、宾语或定语，这个句子会显得拖沓复杂，难以
理解。若采用外位语结构，句子便会变得简洁易懂。
• 4. Rhetorically, extra-position has the function of emphasis.
• 从修辞的角度看，外位语结构可以起到强调作用。
• 外位语通常占据突出的位置，因此可以吸引读者的注意力，
• 如:“我的父母，我的老师，关心我的同学，他们都为我这场病操了不少心。”
• Classifications:
• 汉语外位语结构的分类
• 汉语外位语结构有两种分类方法。
• I: 按本位语在句中充当的语法成分，即外位语原本在句中充当的成分，外位语可分为
外位主语、外位宾语和外位定语。如：
• (l)敬爱的周总理，他是我们尊敬和爱戴的人。(外位主语)
• (2)著名的画家齐白石，我买过他的一张画。(外位定语)
II：按本位语和外位语的关系，该结构又可分为称代式(referential)外位语结构和总分式(inclusive)外位语结构。
• Methods of translating extra-positions:
1.Translate the extra-position and omit the appositive 译出还原外位语，省略本位语(还原法） • 英语中常可用包孕结构或简单句译出汉语外位语结构中的还原外位语而省略冗余信
息。
2. division: translate the extra-position as an independent sentence. 拆句法：
3. Inversion: put the extra-position at the end of the English sentence. 倒置法：
4. Use it as the formal subject (译成形式主语结构)
• 由于末端重量的缘故，英语中大量使用形式主语结构。当实义主语较大或结构较复杂
时，往往应置于末端，而在句首用一个形式主语来占据主语的正常位置。这既避免了
头重脚轻的现象，又能使后移的主语得到加强。
• 因而汉语中以意合为主要手段的意念流可以译成英语中的形式主语结构，以符合译人
语的语言规范。
• 5.use extra-positions in English for emphasis.(对应法)
• 外位语结构位于句首或突出的位置，易于吸引读者的注意力，从而起到强调的修辞功
能，因而在翻译时，出于强调的需要，可打破英语句子线性发展的常规，保留汉语外
位语结构的结构特点，实现汉语外位语结构所要表达的句法功能。
（四）Addition & Omission
• Addition:
• Amplification (addition) means supplying necessary words in the translation based on the
accurate comprehension.
• The necessary words added are the result of the differences of parataxis and hypotaxis
between Chinese and English.
• Addition is the result of the need of the meaning, rhetoric, logic, and syntax.
• Addition in C-E translation
• 1. add necessary pronouns.
• 2. add necessary articles.
• 3. add necessary connectives.
• 4. add necessary prepositions.
• 5. add necessary background information.
• Omission
• Definition: Omission means the omitting of some words of the original text in the
translation, while the original meaning remains unchanged.
• It is the result of the need of grammar and rhetoric.
（五）restructuring
I: definition of restructuring
Restructuring refers to the rearrangement of the word order or sentence structure of the
original text and logical order in the target language.
II: reasons for restructuring.
1.The difference of word order
2. The different positions of attributive phrases and clauses
3. The different position of adverbial of time and place:
4. time order ; the order of cause and effect, condition and result，explanation and
conclusion
A. time order: what happens first comes earlier than what happens subsequently in a phrase
or a sentence.
（时序上的先后律）在句子层面上更加表现了这一特性。在叙事时，汉语是以事件为
中心来组织。人们注意的是一件件事顺时间顺序进行，动作所述及的人物相对处于次
要地位。
This order suggests that in E-C translation, if an English sentence contains several actions
that may not be arranged in time order, the translator should rearrange the actions according
to the time order in Chinese.
B. the order of cause and effect, condition and result，（事理上的因果律）explanation and
conclusion(先铺垫，后结论)
In general, in Chinese, the cause comes before the effect and the condition comes before the
result. While, in English, the cause may come before the effect and the effect may come
before the cause. The same is true for condition and result, and explanation and conclusion.
In the translation of complicated sentences into Chinese, it is necessary to rearrange the
structure according to the logical order in Chinese when the original-order-based translation
is non-smooth.
(六) Conversion
• 1.Definition: Conversion means that one word class in the source language is translated as
another word class in the target language.
• 2.reasons for conversion:
• English is a language dominated by Nouns, whereas Chinese is a language dominated by
verbs.
• 3. what to be converted:
• The Chinese verbs are often converted into nouns, prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, v-ing,
v-ed, to do and other parts of speech.
• 2. Conversion in C-E translation:
• a. determination of the main verb and the minor verbs in the Chinese sentence.
• b. in translating, the major verb predicate in English and the minor ones
v-ing, v-ed, to do and prep. Phrase
（七）Diction
• 1.Definition:
• Diction means the choice of word meaning and its expression in translation according to its
• 2.The role of context in translation
• “No context, no translation”.
• Context plays a very important role in translation, in the understanding of word
meaning, sentence structure, cultural element in the source language, and the correct choice
of words and expressions in the target language.
• 3. types of context in translation:
• (1).Linguistic context: the text surrounding an utterance
• (2).Cultural context: the culture in which the text is set
• (3).Cognitive context: the translator’s encyclopedic knowledge about the writer, the
events under discussion, general cultural assumptions, religious beliefs, the target readers’
expectation, the target culture, etc..
Diction in C-E translation: Major Topics
• 1. Exactness of meaning in translation
• In C-E translation, the translator has to consider the style, the range, the good sense, and bad
sense of word meaning, word collocation, and the choice between similar words.
• A. conceptual meaning
• B. false friends
• C. associative meaning
• Because of the cultural differences, different tradition, different customs, the same
associative meaning could be expressed with different objects in different cultures. Substitution, or sometimes explanation, is necessary in translation.
• 2. Clarity of meaning in translation
• Analysis: Because of the feature of parataxis, the meaning of some Chinese words is vague.
In C-E translation, it should be made clear.
• 3. Brevity of meaning in translation
• Analysis: The meaning of some Chinese words are expressed in other English words. So
these words could be left un-translated. E.g.
(八) Negation
I. what is negation?
• Negation refers to the translation of positive expressions in English as negative expressions
in Chinese or the translation of negative expressions in English as positive expressions in Chinese, or vice versa.
• Its purpose is to better and more faithfully convey the original meaning in the target
language.
II. Categories of negative words and expressions in English
Words with negative implication
• (1)English verbs with negative implications:
• fail, refuse, keep off, reject，neglect, exclude, lack, ignore, deny, prevent from, refrain
from, give up, withhold，avoid，stop，turn down，fall short of, lose sight of，wash one's hands of, shut one's eyes to，turn a deaf ear to etc.
• (2).English Nouns with negative implications:
• failure, absence , refusal, ignorance, neglect, exclusion, denial, scarcity.
• (3).English Adj. or adj. phrases with negative implications:
• ignorant, free from, far from, short of, safe from, blind to,, deaf to, dead to, foreign to. • (4).English prep. or prep phrases with negative implications:
• without, but, above, beyond, except, instead of, in place of, anything but, against.
• (5).comparative structures with negative implications:
• more(„) than „can; more„than„; „other than„; „rather than„; would rather
than„.; know better than to do sth.; prefer A to B;
• (6).conjunctions with negative implications:
• unless, before, until, or, than, …
III. Negation in C-E translation
• (I). positive in Chinese but negative in English
• (II). negative in Chinese but positive in English
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• 农家乐rural farm; farm stay; agritainment 教育公平equal access to education 民心工程 projects in the public interest; pro-people projects 医保覆盖面 coverage of basic medical insurance 看病难、看病贵”问题 the problems of “expensive medical bills and difficult access to quality medical services” 火车票实名制 real name ticket booking system 酒后代驾 designated driver 房奴 mortgage slave 忧患意识adversity consciousness 全民医保 basic healthcare services available for the entire population 裸婚 simplistic marriage; bare-handed marriage 地沟油 hogwash oil; recycled cooking oil 法人legal person 法人代表 legal representative 打酱油see no evil; hear no evil; none of my business; I am just passing by; no comment 隐婚族 pseudo-singles 山寨 copycat; Shanzhai; knock-off 潜规则 unspoken rule 富二代 the second-generation rich; silver-spoon kids 错时上下班 staggered office hours 住房空置率 (housing) vacancy rate 阶梯计价 differential pricing; tiered pricing 新型农村合作医疗制度 the New Rural Cooperative Healthcare System 城镇居民/职工基本医保 basic medical insurance for urban residents/employees 低保家庭 household receiving subsistence allowances 公立医院改革试点 pilot projects of the public hospital reform
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 农村扶贫标准：rural poverty line 基层民主：community-level democracy 政治体制改革：political structural reform; reform of the political structure 生态文明建设：promote ecological progress; raise ecological awareness 科学发展观：scientific outlook on development 实现全体人民共同富裕：achieve prosperity for all 社会公平正义：social fairness and justice 有利的国际环境：favorable international conditions/environment 精神文化生活：intellectual pursuit and cultural entertainment 时代特征：the underlying trend of our times 求真务实：be realistic and pragmatic 分配制度：system of income distribution 统筹兼顾：take a holistic/integrated approach 更加奋发有为，兢兢业业地工作：aim higher and work harder 综合国力：overall strength of a country